As confidentially submitted to the Securities and Exchange Commission on September 9, 2021

Registration No. 333-            

UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

FORM F-1

REGISTRATION STATEMENT

Under

The Securities Act of 1933

Nano Labs Ltd

(Exact name of Registrant as specified in its Constitution)

30th Floor, Dikaiyinzuo

No. 29, East Jiefang Road,

Hangzhou, Zhejiang

People’s Republic of China

(86) 0571-8665 6957

(Address, including zip code, and telephone number, including area code, of Registrant’s principal executive offices)

(Name, address, including zip code, and telephone number, including area code, of agent for service)

Copies to:

Approximate date of commencement of proposed sale to the public:

As soon as practicable after the effective date of this registration statement.

If any of the securities being registered on this Form are to be offered on a delayed or continuous basis pursuant to Rule 415 under the Securities Act of 1933, or the Securities Act, check the following box.  ☐

If this Form is filed to register additional securities for an offering pursuant to Rule 462(b) under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering.  ☐

If this Form is a post-effective amendment filed pursuant to Rule 462(c) under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering.  ☐

If this Form is a post-effective amendment filed pursuant to Rule 462(d) under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering.  ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is an emerging growth company as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act of 1933.

Emerging growth company  ☒

If an emerging growth company that prepares its financial statements in accordance with U.S. GAAP, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards† provided pursuant to Section 7(a)(2)(B) of the Securities Act.  ☐

CALCULATION OF REGISTRATION FEE

The Registrant hereby amends this registration statement on such date or dates as may be necessary to delay its effective date until the Registrant shall file a further amendment which specifically states that this registration statement shall thereafter become effective in accordance with Section 8(a) of the Securities Act, as amended, or until the registration statement shall become effective on such date as the Securities and Exchange Commission, acting pursuant to said Section 8(a) may determine.

The information in this preliminary prospectus is not complete and may be changed. These securities may not be sold until the registration statement filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission is effective. This preliminary prospectus is not an offer to sell nor does it seek an offer to buy these securities in any jurisdiction where the offer or sale is not permitted.

Subject to Completion. Dated            , 2021

American Depositary Shares

Nano Labs Ltd

Representing                 Class A Ordinary Shares

This is an initial public offering of American depositary shares, or ADSs, representing Class A ordinary shares, par value US$0.0001 per share, or Class A ordinary shares, of Nano Labs Ltd.

We are offering                     ADSs representing                     Class A ordinary shares to be sold in this offering. Each ADS represents         of our Class A ordinary share(s).

Prior to this offering, there has been no public market for the ADSs or our shares. It is currently estimated that the initial public offering price per ADS will be between US$         and US$        . We intend to apply to list the ADSs on [the Nasdaq Global Market] under the symbol “[NA].”

We are an “emerging growth company” as defined under applicable U.S. securities laws and are eligible for reduced public company reporting requirements.

Immediately prior to the completion of this offering, our issued and outstanding share capital will consist of Class A ordinary shares and Class B ordinary shares. Holders of Class A ordinary shares and Class B ordinary shares have the same rights except for voting and conversion rights. Each Class A ordinary share will be entitled to one vote, and each Class B ordinary share will be entitled to 15 votes. Each Class B ordinary share will be convertible into Class A ordinary share at the option of the holder thereof. Class A ordinary shares will not be convertible into Class B ordinary shares under any circumstances.

Additionally, upon the completion of this offering, we will be a “controlled company” as defined under corporate governance rules of Nasdaq Stock Market, because Mr. Jianping Kong will beneficially own     % of our then-issued and outstanding Class B ordinary shares and will be able to exercise     % of the total voting power of our issued and outstanding ordinary shares immediately after the consummation of this offering, assuming the underwriters do not exercise its option to purchase additional ADSs. For further information, see “Principal Shareholders.”

Neither we nor any of our subsidiaries has obtained the approval from either the China Securities Regulatory Commission or the Cyberspace Administration of China for this offering, and we do not intend to obtain the approval from any of such or other regulators in China in connection with this offering, since we do not believe that such approval is required under these circumstances. We cannot assure you, however, that regulators in China will not take a contrary view or will not subsequently require us to undergo the approval procedures and subject us to penalties for non-compliance. See “Risk Factors—Risks Relating to Conducting Business in China—Recent regulatory developments in China may subject us to additional regulatory review or otherwise restrict our ability to offer securities and raise capitals overseas, all of which could materially and adversely affect our business and the value of the ADSs.” and “—Risks Relating to the ADSs and this Offering—The approval of the CSRC, the CAC and other compliance procedures may be required in connection with this offering, and, if required, we cannot predict whether we will be able to obtain such approval.”

See “Risk Factors” on page 14 to read about factors you should consider before buying the ADSs.

Neither the United States Securities and Exchange Commission nor any other regulatory body has approved or disapproved of these securities or passed upon the accuracy or adequacy of this prospectus. Any representation to the contrary is a criminal offense.

To the extent that the underwriters sell more than                     ADSs in this offering, the underwriters have an option to purchase up to an additional                     ADSs from us at the initial public offering price less the underwriting discounts and commissions.

The underwriters expect to deliver the ADSs against payment in U.S. dollars in New York, New York on or about             , 2021.

Prospectus dated            , 2021

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Until              , 2021 (the 25th day after the date of this prospectus), all dealers that buy, sell or trade ADSs, whether or not participating in this offering, may be required to deliver a prospectus. This is in addition to the dealers’ obligation to deliver a prospectus when acting as underwriters and with respect to their unsold allotments or subscriptions.

You should rely only on the information contained in this prospectus or in any related free writing prospectus that we have filed with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, or the SEC. We have not authorized anyone to provide you with information different from that contained in this prospectus or in any related free-writing prospectus. We take no responsibility for, and can provide no assurance as to the reliability of, any other information that others may give you. We are offering to sell, and seeking offers to buy the ADSs offered hereby, but only under circumstances and in jurisdictions where offers and sales are permitted and lawful to do so. The information contained in this prospectus is current only as of its date, regardless of the time of delivery of this prospectus or of any sale of the ADSs.

Neither we nor the underwriters have done anything that would permit this offering or possession or distribution of this prospectus or any filed free writing prospectus in any jurisdiction where other action for that purpose is required, other than in the United States. Persons outside the United States who come into possession of this prospectus or any filed free writing prospectus must inform themselves about, and observe any restrictions relating to, the offering of the ADSs and the distribution of this prospectus or any filed free writing prospectus outside the United States.

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RISK FACTORS

An investment in our ADSs involves significant risks. You should carefully consider all of the information in this prospectus, including the risks and uncertainties described below, before making an investment in our ADSs. Any of the following risks could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations. The trading price of our ADSs could decline due to any of these risks and you may lose all or part of your investment. When determining whether to invest, you should also refer to the other information contained in this prospectus, including our financial statements and the related notes thereto. You should also carefully review the cautionary statements referred to under “Forward-looking Statements.” Our actual results could differ materially and adversely from those anticipated in this prospectus.

Risks Relating to Our Business

We may fail to anticipate or adapt to technology innovations in a timely manner, so our IC design may fail to gain recognition from the customers and the IC design industry.

The IC design industry is experiencing rapid technological changes. Failure to anticipate technology innovations or adapt to such innovations in a timely manner, or at all, may result in our products becoming obsolete at sudden and unpredictable intervals. As a result, our IC design may fail to gain recognition from the customers and the industry, which could materially and adversely affect our business, results of operations or financial condition. To maintain the relevancy of our products, we have actively invested in product planning and research and development. The process of developing and marketing new products is inherently complex and involves significant uncertainties. We cannot assure you that our efforts will bring customers and industry recognition. There are various risks, including the following:

Any failure to anticipate the next-generation technology roadmap or changes in customer preferences or to timely develop new or enhanced products in response could result in decreased revenue and market share. In particular, we may experience difficulties with product design, product development, marketing or certification, which could result in excessive research and development expenses and capital expenditure, delays or prevent our introduction of new or enhanced products. Furthermore, our research and development efforts may not yield the expected results or may prove to be futile due to the lack of market demand.

Our results of operations have been and are expected to continue to be significantly impacted by the volatility of the cryptocurrency market, and in particular, the sharp price decrease of cryptocurrencies.

Our products, including HTC and HPC solutions and distributed computing and data storage solutions, are currently designed primarily for the mining of various cryptocurrencies, such as Bitcoin, Ethereum, Grin, Filecoin and Chia. The demand for, and pricing of, our products are therefore affected by the expected economic returns of mining activities for these cryptocurrencies, which in turn are primarily driven by, among other factors, the prices. The cryptocurrency market is highly volatile, and the prices of Bitcoin, Ethereum, Grin,

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Filecoin and Chia have experienced significant fluctuations over their short existence and may continue to fluctuate significantly in the future. For example, the overall price of Bitcoin is on an upward trend, however, there have been some significant decreases in late 2018, early 2020 and early 2021, according to the F&S report.

Historically, our revenues were primarily derived from the sales of HTC solutions primarily used for Grin mining. We plan to launch several new products, such as the HTC solutions used for Ethereum mining, HPC solutions used for Bitcoin mining and distributed computing and data storage solutions primarily for Filecoin and Chia mining, in or around the fourth quarter of 2021. We expect our results of operations to be affected by the prices of cryptocurrencies, in particular, significantly and negatively impacted by the sharp price decrease of the prices of cryptocurrencies including Bitcoin, Ethereum, Grin, Filecoin and Chia. Although we expect to begin the delivery of these new products in or around the fourth quarter of 2021, a diversified offering of mining solution types is unlikely to spread the risk of volatility as the prices of mainstream cryptocurrencies are highly correlated. We cannot assure you that the cryptocurrency market will remain active enough to sustain the demand for our current and future mining machines or that the prices for any of these cryptocurrencies will not decline significantly in the future. Furthermore, fluctuations in the prices of cryptocurrencies, in particular, Bitcoin, Ethereum, Grin, Filecoin and Chia, can have an immediate impact on the trading price of the companies operating in the cryptocurrency industry, including the ADSs, even before our financial performance is affected, if at all.

In addition to the market volatility, various other factors, mostly beyond our control, could impact the prices of cryptocurrencies. For example, the usage of Bitcoins in the retail and commercial marketplace is relatively low in comparison with the usage for speculation, which contributes to Bitcoin price volatility.

If the price of cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin, Ethereum, Grin, Filecoin or Chia drops and fails to recover, the expected economic return of such mining activities will diminish, which could result in a decrease in demand for our current and future HTC and HPC solutions and distributed computing and data storage solutions. As a result, we may need to reduce the price of our HTC and HPC solutions and distributed computing and data storage solutions. At the same time, if transaction fees for these cryptocurrencies increase to such an extent as to discourage users from using them as a medium of exchange, it may decrease the transaction volume of the relevant network and may affect the demand for our current and future HTC and HPC solutions and distributed computing and data storage solutions. In addition, any shortage of power supply due to government control measures or other reasons, and any increase in energy costs, would raise the costs of mining activities. This in turn could affect the expected economic return to our customers for their mining activities and the demand for and pricing of our current and future HTC and HPC solutions and distributed computing and data storage solutions. Furthermore, fluctuations in the prices of Bitcoin, Ethereum, Grin, Filecoin or Chia may affect the value of our inventory as well as the provision we make to the inventory as we manage our inventory based on, among others, the sales forecast of current and future HTC and HPC solutions and distributed computing and data storage solutions. If we increase our procurement volume and stock up finished goods for the launch of new products or we expect a surge of demand of certain HTC and HPC solutions, a significant drop in the prices of Bitcoin, Ethereum, Grin, Filecoin or Chia can lead to a lower expected sales price and excessive inventory, which in turn will lead to impairment losses with respect to such inventory. If the prices of Bitcoin, Ethereum, Grin, Filecoin or Chia drop significantly in the future, we may need to record write-down for potentially obsolete, slow-moving inventory. To the extent that we are able to sell such inventory above its carrying value, our gross profit may also be inflated by such write down.

The price drop of cryptocurrencies may also adversely impact the ability of our customers who made down payments for our current or future HTC and HPC solutions and distributed computing and data storage solutions to make final payments. We usually require full payment to be paid before the delivery of our products. If the prices of Bitcoin, Ethereum, Grin, Filecoin or Chia drop significantly in the future, we may need to offer to certain of our customers price concession in the case where they encounter the difficulties for making the final payments, even if we generally do not offer a price concession to customers. We historically did not offer any price concession to any customer. If we provide any price concession to our customers in the future, our revenues and results of operations may be adversely affected.

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We have derived and may continue to derive substantially all of our revenues from our HTC solutions. We also expect to generate significant revenues from HPC solutions in the future. If the market for HTC and HPC solutions ceases to exist or diminishes significantly, our business, results of operations and financial condition would be materially and adversely affected.

Historically, our revenues were primarily derived from the sales of HTC solutions primarily used for Grin mining. We have completed several new products, such as the HTC solutions used for Ethereum mining, HPC solutions used for Bitcoin mining and distributed computing and data storage solutions primarily for Filecoin and Chia mining. In 2020, sales of our HTC solutions accounted for 94.2% of our total revenues, and we had received RMB861.3 million (US$133.3 million) from the pre-sale of our HTC and HPC solutions as of June 30, 2021. We expect to generate, in the foreseeable future, a significant portion of our revenues from sales of our HTC and HPC solutions.

If the market for any of the above-mentioned mining solutions ceases to exist or diminishes significantly, we would experience a significant loss of sales, cancelation of orders, or loss of customers for our current and future mining machines.

Adverse factors that may affect the market for our current and future mining machines include:

If we cannot maintain the scale and profitability of our HTC and HPC solutions and distributed computing and data storage solutions and, at the same time, successfully expand our business in other application markets, our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects will suffer. Furthermore, excess inventory, inventory markdowns, brand image deterioration and margin squeeze caused by declining economic returns for miners or pricing competition for our HTC and HPC solutions and distributed computing and data storage solutions could all have a material and adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition. Moreover, as we only had experience in the commercialization of HTC solutions for Grin mining, we cannot assure you that our HTC and HPC solutions and distributed computing and storage solutions to be launched will be well received among the miners of these cryptocurrencies, nor can we assure you that the demand for these products will be strong enough for us to recover the research and development expenses incurred in relation to the development of these products. If our efforts to market these new products fail, or the demand for these products turns out to be weaker than we expected, our business, results of operations and financial condition may be materially and adversely affected.

We face risks associated with the expansion of our business operations overseas and if we are unable to effectively manage such risks, our business growth and profitability may be negatively affected.

We intend to grow our business in part by expanding our sales network and operations internationally beyond China. Our expansion plans include possibly establishing offices for sales, research and development and other operations in Singapore and the United States. However, there are risks associated with such global expansion plans, including:

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If we are unable to effectively manage such risks, we may encounter difficulties in our overseas expansion plans and our business, reputation, results of operations and financial condition may be impaired.

Our business growth is dependent on the development of blockchain technology and applications, particularly in the field of Bitcoin, Ethereum, Grin, Filecoin and Chia.

We have historically derived our revenues primarily from sales of our HTC solutions in relation to Grin mining. The development of blockchain technology is still in a relatively early stage, and we cannot assure you that blockchain applications, including those in the fields of cryptocurrencies and other areas such as artificial intelligence, will gain wide market acceptance. Any blockchain application may become redundant or obsolete with the introduction of new competing technologies or products. If market acceptance or confidence in blockchain technology is lost or reduced for any reason, such as due to cybersecurity issues, the demand for our existing or future blockchain products may decline.

Our blockchain mining solution business depends significantly on the development of cryptocurrency applications, in particular, Bitcoin, Ethereum, Grin, Filecoin and Chia applications. The cryptocurrency market is rapidly and continuously evolving. Any actual or perceived adverse development in Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies can significantly affect market demand for mining activities and our HTC and HPC solutions and distributed computing and data storage solutions. In addition, any event or rumor that generates negative publicity for the cryptocurrency market could hinder the development and reduce market acceptance of cryptocurrency applications. Under such circumstances, our business, results of operations and financial condition could be materially and adversely affected.

The average selling prices of our products may decrease from time to time due to technological advancement, and we may not be able to pass onto our suppliers such decreases, which may in turn adversely affect our profitability.

The IC design industry is characterized by rapid launches of new products, continuous technological advancements, and changing market trends and customer preferences, all of which translate to a shorter life cycle

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and a gradual decrease in the average selling prices of products over time. Because we compete in the environment of rapidly-evolving technology advancement and market trends and developments of the IC design industry, we may need to lower the price of our products to gain stronger market competitiveness and we cannot assure you that we will be able to pass on any decrease in average selling prices of our products to our suppliers. If the average selling prices of our products unusually or significantly decrease and such decreases cannot be offset by a corresponding decrease in the prices of the principal components of our products, our gross profit margins may be materially and adversely affected, which in turn, may adversely affect our profitability.

If Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin loses its popularity or is replaced by other cryptocurrencies as the mainstream cryptocurrencies, we may not be able to win the market for our future mining machines and our results of operations will be materially and adversely affected.

Historically, we derived our revenue primarily from HTC solutions designed for Grin mining. As of the date of this prospectus, we have pre-sold our Bitcoin and Ethereum mining solutions to our customers. We face the risk that other cryptocurrencies could replace Bitcoin and Ethereum as the mainstream cryptocurrencies, which may in turn negatively impact the value of Bitcoin and Ethereum and diminish interest in mining Bitcoin and Ethereum. We also face the risk of Grin losing its popularity. Acceptance of Bitcoin, Ethereum and Grin may decline due to various reasons such as the following:

If fewer people accept Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin or fewer merchants accept Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin as a payment method and alternative assets or Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin mining being restricted or prohibited due to the changes of the relevant laws and regulations, Bitcoin, Ethereum and Grin may decline in value. For example, although Bitcoin is currently the largest cryptocurrency by market capitalization, a substantial amount of Bitcoin-related transactions may be speculation-related and a technological breakthrough in the form of a better cryptocurrency is a continuous threat. Other cryptocurrencies may be designed with algorithms that are not compatible with the kind of computing done by ASIC chip mining machines. If such a cryptocurrency were to become dominant, our existing technological know-how may not be applicable in creating hardware for participants in that cryptocurrency network, and we may face greater competition from new players. In addition, since the value of and support for Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin depend entirely on the community using it, any disagreement between the users may result in the splitting of the network to support other cryptocurrencies and the users may sell all their Bitcoin, Ethereum and Grin and switch to other cryptocurrencies. As a result, our future blockchain mining solutions and our results of operations would be materially and adversely affected.

Our IC products mainly depend on supplies from third-party foundries, and any failure to obtain sufficient foundry capacity from such foundries would significantly delay the shipment of our products.

As a fabless IC design company, we do not own any IC fabrication facilities. We currently work with two leading foundries as our main IC fabrication partners and place purchase orders according to our business needs. It is important for us to have a reliable relationship with third-party foundries as well as other future foundry service providers to ensure adequate product supply to respond to customer demand.

We cannot guarantee that our foundry service providers will be able to meet our manufacturing requirements. The ability of our foundry service providers to provide us with foundry services is limited by their technology migration, available capacity and existing obligations. If any of our foundry service providers fails to succeed in its technology migration, it will not be able to deliver to us qualified ICs, which will significantly affect our technological advancement and shipment of our products and solutions. This could in turn result in lost sales and have a material adverse effect on our relationships with our customers and on our business and

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financial condition. In addition, we do not have a guaranteed level of production capacity from our foundry service providers. We do not have long-term contracts with them, and we source our supplies on a purchase order basis and prepay the purchase amount. As a result, we depend on our foundry service providers to allocate to us a portion of its manufacturing capacity sufficient to meet our needs, produce products of acceptable quality and at acceptable final test yields and deliver those products to us on a timely basis and at acceptable prices. If any of our foundry service providers raises its prices or is unable to meet our required capacity for any reason, such as shortages or delays in the shipment of semiconductor equipment or raw materials required to manufacture our ICs, or if our business relationships with any of our foundry service providers deteriorate, we may not be able to obtain the required capacity and would have to seek alternative foundries, which may not be available on commercially reasonable terms, or at all. Moreover, it is possible that other customers of any of our foundry service providers that are larger and/or better financed than we are, or that have long-term contracts with it, may receive preferential treatment in terms of capacity allocation or pricing. In addition, if we do not accurately forecast our capacity needs, any of our foundry service providers may not have available capacity to meet our immediate needs or we may be required to pay higher costs to fulfill those needs, either of which could materially and adversely affect our business, results of operations or financial condition.

In particular, the production of our IC products may require advanced IC fabrication technologies, and some third-party foundries we partner with might not have sufficient production capacity for such technologies, if at all, to meet our requirements. This may expose us to risks associated with engaging new foundries. For example, using foundries with which we have not established relationships could expose us to potentially unfavorable pricing, unsatisfactory quality or insufficient capacity allocation.

Other risks associated with our dependence on third-party foundries include limited control over delivery schedules and quality assurance, lack of capacity in periods of excess demand, unauthorized use of our intellectual property and limited ability to manage inventory and parts. In particular, although we have entered into confidentiality agreements with our third-party foundries for the protection of our intellectual property, they may not protect our intellectual property with the same degree of care as we use to protect our intellectual property. If we fail to properly manage any of these risks, our business and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.

Moreover, if any of our foundry service providers suffers any damage to its facilities, suspends manufacturing operations, loses benefits under material agreements, experiences power outages or computer virus attacks, lacks sufficient capacity to manufacture our products, encounters financial difficulties, is unable to secure necessary raw materials from its suppliers or suffers any other disruption or reduction in efficiency, we may encounter supply delays or disruptions.

We rely on a limited number of third parties for IC packaging and testing services.

Fabrication of ICs requires specialized services to process the silicon wafers into ICs by packaging them and to test their proper functioning. We primarily collaborate with a lending packaging and testing service provider for such services, which may expose us to a number of risks, including difficulties in finding alternate suppliers, capacity shortages or delays, lack of control or oversight in timing, quality or costs, and misuse of our intellectual property. If any such problems arise with our packaging and testing partners, we may experience delays in our production and delivery timeline, inadequate quality control of our products or excessive costs and expenses. As a result, our financial condition, results of operations, reputation and business may be adversely affected.

Shortages in, or rises in the prices of, the components of our HTC and HPC solutions and distributed computing and storage solutions may adversely affect our business.

Given the long production period to manufacture, assemble, and deliver certain components and products, problems could arise in planning production and managing inventory levels that could seriously interrupt our operations, including the possibility of defective parts, an increase in component costs, delays in delivery

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schedules, and shortages of components. In addition to ICs, the components we use for our mining machines include printed circuit boards, other electronic components, fans, and aluminum casings. The production of our mining machines also requires certain ancillary equipment and components such as controllers, power adaptors, and connectors. The production of our current products depends on obtaining adequate supplies of these components on a timely basis and at competitive prices. We do not typically maintain large inventory of the components, and rather purchase them on an “as-needed” basis from various third-party component manufacturers that satisfy our quality standards and meet our production requirements. We may have to turn to less reputable suppliers if we cannot source adequate components from our regular suppliers. Under such circumstances, the quality of the components may suffer and could cause performance issues in our HTC and HPC solutions and distributed computing and storage solutions.

Shortages of components could result in reduced production or delays in production, as well as an increase in production costs, which may negatively affect our ability to fulfill orders or make timely shipments to our customers, as well as our customer relationships and profitability. Component shortages may also increase our costs of products sold because we may be required to pay higher prices for components in short supply, or redesign or reconfigure products to accommodate for the substitute components, without being able to pass such cost to our customers. As a result, our business, results of operations and reputation could be materially and adversely affected by any product defects.

Failure at tape-out or failure to achieve the expected final test yields for our ICs could negatively impact our results of operations.

The tape-out process is a critical milestone in our business. A tape-out means all the stages in the design and verification process of our ICs have been completed, and the chip design is sent for manufacturing. The tape-out process requires considerable investment in time and resources and close cooperation with the wafer foundry, and repeated failures can significantly increase our costs, lengthen our product development period, and delay our product launch. If the tape-out or testing of a new chip design fails, either as a result of design flaws by our research and development team or problems with production or the testing process by the wafer foundry, we may incur considerable costs and expenses to fix or restart the design process. Such obstacles may decrease our profitability or delay the launch of new products.

Once tape-out is achieved, the IC design is sent for manufacturing, and the final test yield is a measurement of the production success rate. The final test yield is a function of both product design, which is developed by us, and process technology, which typically belongs to a third-party foundry. Low final test yields can result from a product design deficiency or a process technology failure or a combination of both. As such, we may not be able to identify problems causing low final test yields until our product designs go to the manufacturing stage, which may substantially increase our per unit costs and delay the launch of new products.

For example, if any of our foundry service providers experiences manufacturing inefficiencies or encounters disruptions, errors or difficulties during production, we may fail to achieve acceptable final test yields or experience product delivery delays. We cannot guarantee that our foundry service providers will be able to develop, obtain or successfully implement process technologies needed to manufacture future generations of our IC products on a timely basis. Moreover, during the periods in which foundries are implementing new process technologies, their manufacturing facilities may not be fully productive. A substantial delay in the technology transitions to smaller geometry process technologies could have a material and adverse effect on us, particularly if our competitors transition to such technologies before us. In addition, resolution of yield problems requires cooperation among us, foundry partners, and packaging and testing partners. We cannot assure you that the cooperation will be successful and that any yield problem can be fixed.

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Our HTC and HPC solutions and distributed computing and storage solutions use open source software as their basic controller system, which may subject us to certain risks.

We use open source software in our HTC and HPC solutions and distributed computing and storage solutions. For example, our mining machine controller open source software needs to be installed on open source, which serves as the basic controller system for our HTC and HPC solutions, and we expect to continue to use open source software in the future. We may face claims from others claiming ownership of, or seeking to enforce the terms of, an open source license, including by demanding the release of the open source software, derivative works or our proprietary source code that was developed using such software. These claims could also result in litigation, requiring us to purchase a costly license or to devote additional research and development resources to change our technologies, either of which would have a negative effect on our business and results of operations. In addition, if the license terms for the open source software we utilize change, we may be forced to re-engineer or discontinue our solutions or incur additional costs.

If we fail to maintain an effective quality control system, our business could be materially and adversely affected.

We place great emphasis on product quality and adhere to stringent quality control measures and have obtained quality control certifications for our products. To meet our customers’ requirements and expectations for the quality and safety of our products, we have adopted a stringent quality control system to ensure that every step of the production process is strictly monitored and managed. Failure to maintain an effective quality control system or to obtain or renew our quality standards certifications may result in a decrease in demand for our products or cancelation or loss of purchase orders from our customers. Moreover, our reputation could be impaired. As a result, our business, results of operations and financial condition could be materially and adversely affected.

The quality of our products and services relies on third-party suppliers and service providers we engage. If we fail to provide satisfactory services or maintain their service levels, it could materially and adversely affect our business, reputation, financial condition and results of operations.

We rely on third-party suppliers and service providers to provide quality products and services to customers, and our brand and reputation may be harmed by actions taken by them that are beyond our control. Despite the measures we have taken to ensure the quality of products and services provided by third-party suppliers and service providers, to the extent that there are manufacturing defects beyond our control, or our third-party suppliers and service providers are unable to maintain the efficiency of their production facilities, supply sufficient components or raw materials in a timely manner, or provide satisfactory services to our

customers, we may suffer reputational damage, and our brand image, business, results of operations and financial condition may be materially and adversely affected.

We rely on third-party logistics service providers to deliver our products. Disruption in logistics may prevent us from meeting customer demand and our business, results of operations and financial condition may suffer as a result.

We engage third-party logistics service providers to deliver the ICs from our production partners to our assembly partners and our products from our assembly partners to our customers. Disputes with or termination of our contractual relationships with one or more of our logistics service providers could result in delayed delivery of products or increased costs. We cannot assure you that we can continue or extend relationships with our current logistics service providers on terms acceptable to us, or that we will be able to establish relationships with new logistics service providers to ensure accurate, timely and cost-efficient delivery services. If we are unable to maintain or develop good relationships with our preferred logistics service providers, it may inhibit our ability to offer products in sufficient quantities, on a timely basis, or at prices acceptable to our consumers. If there is any breakdown in our relationships with our preferred logistics service providers, we cannot assure you that no interruptions in our product delivery would occur or that they would not materially and adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

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As we do not have any direct control over these logistics service providers, we cannot guarantee their quality of service. In addition, services provided by these logistics service providers could be interrupted by unforeseen events beyond our control, such as poor handling provided by these logistics service providers, natural disasters, pandemics, adverse weather conditions, riots and labor strikes. If there is any delay in delivery, damage to products or any other issue, we may lose customers and sales and our brand image may be tarnished.

Product defects resulting in a large-scale product recall or product liability claims against us could materially and adversely affect our business, results of operations and reputation.

Our products are manufactured in accordance with internationally accepted quality standards and specifications provided by our customers. However, we cannot assure you that all our products are free of defects. Consequently, any product defects identified by our customers or end users might erode our reputation and negatively affect our customer relationships and future business. Product defects may also result in product returns and large-scale product recalls or product liability claims against us for substantial damages. Such claims, irrespective of the outcomes or the merits, would likely be time-consuming and costly to defend and could divert significant resources and management attention. Furthermore, even if we are able to defend any such claim successfully, we cannot assure you that our customers will not lose confidence in our products or that our future relationships with our customers will not be damaged. As a result, our business, results of operations, reputation and brand image could be materially and adversely affected by any product defects.

If we are unable to maintain or enhance our brand recognition, our business, results of operations and financial condition may be materially and adversely affected.

Maintaining and enhancing the recognition, image and acceptance of our brand are important to our ability to differentiate our products from and to compete effectively with our peers. Our brand image, however, could be jeopardized if we fail to maintain high product quality, pioneer and keep pace with evolving technology trends, or timely fulfill the orders for our products. If we fail to promote our brand or to maintain or enhance our brand recognition and awareness among our customers, or if we are subject to events or negative allegations affecting our brand image or the publicly perceived position of our brand, our business, results of operations and financial condition could be adversely affected.

Risks Relating to Our Operations

We have incurred net losses and negative cash flows from operating activities in the past, and we may not achieve or sustain profitability.

We recorded net loss of RMB11.0 million and RMB37.7 million (US$5.8 million) in 2019 and 2020, respectively. We also recorded negative cash flows from operating activities of RMB3.0 million (US$0.5 million) in 2020. We cannot assure you that we will be able to generate net profit or positive cash flow from operating activities in the future. Our ability to achieve profitability will depend in large part on our ability to control expenses and manage our growth effectively, achieve a more stable performance given the significant fluctuation and volatility of the prices of cryptocurrencies and blockchain mining business, and maintain our competitive advantage in the relevant markets. We expect to continue to make investments in the development and expansion of our business, which will place significant demands on our management and our operational and financial resources. Continuous expansion may increase the complexity of our business, and we may encounter various difficulties. We may fail to develop and improve our operational, financial and management controls, enhance our financial reporting systems and procedures, recruit, train and retain highly skilled personnel, or maintain customer satisfaction to effectively support and manage our growth. If we invest substantial time and resources to expand our operations but fail to manage the growth of our business and capitalize on our growth opportunities effectively, we may not be able to achieve profitability, and our business, results of operations and financial condition would be materially and adversely affected.

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Our limited operating history and our volatile historical results of operations could make it difficult for us to forecast our business and assess the seasonality and volatility in our business.

We have a relatively short operating history since 2019 and did not generate any revenue until 2020. Our total revenue was RMB2.1 million (US$0.3 million) in 2020. As the fabless IC design market is relatively nascent and still rapidly evolving, and due to our limited operating history and historical data, as well as the limited visibility into future demand trends for our products, we may not be able to accurately forecast our future total revenue and budget our operating expenses accordingly. As most of our expenses are fixed in the short-term or incurred in advance of anticipated total revenue, we may not be able to adjust our expenses in a timely manner in order to offset any shortfall in revenue.

Our business may be subject to the varying order patterns of the fabless IC design market. We may experience fluctuations in orders in the future. Our volatile historical results of operations could make it difficult to assess the impact of seasonal factors on our business. If we or any of our third-party manufacturing service providers are unable to increase production of new or existing products to meet any increases in demand due to seasonality or other factors, our total revenue would be adversely affected and our reputation with our customers may be damaged.

The ongoing global coronavirus COVID-19 outbreak had caused significant disruptions in our business, which we expect will materially and adversely affect our results of operations and financial condition.

The outbreak of COVID-19 has spread throughout the world. On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization declared the outbreak a global pandemic. Many businesses and social activities in China and other countries and regions have been severely disrupted in the first quarter of 2020, including those of our suppliers, customers and employees. This global outbreak has also caused market panics, which materially and negatively affected the global financial markets, such as the plunge of global stocks on major stock exchanges in March 2020. Such disruption and the potential slowdown of the world’s economy in 2020 and beyond could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations and financial condition. We and our customers experienced and may continue to experience significant business disruptions and suspension of operations due to quarantine measures to contain the spread of the pandemic, which may cause shortage in the supply of raw materials, reduce our production capacity, increase the likelihood of default from our customers and delay our product delivery. Our business operation was also disrupted, and may continue to be disrupted, if any of our employees are suspected of having contracted any contagious disease or condition, since it could require our employees to be quarantined or our offices and production to be closed down and disinfected. Moreover, regional outbreaks of COVID-19 may continue to emerge. All of these had, and may continue to have, a material adverse effect on our results of operations and financial condition in the near term. We are closely monitoring the development of the COVID-19 pandemic and continuously evaluating any further potential impact on our business, results of operations and financial condition, which we believe will depend on the duration and degree of the pandemic. If the outbreak persists or escalates, we may be subject to further negative impact on our business operations and financial condition.

Our business requires significant financial resources, but we may not be able to obtain it in a timely manner and on favorable terms or at all.

We recorded net cash outflow from operating activities of RMB3.0 million (US$0.5 million) and incurred net loss of RMB37.7 million (US$5.8 million) for 2020. We have in the past financed our working capital needs primarily with our capital contributions by and loans from shareholders.

We may require additional cash resources due to the future growth, development and expansion of our business. Our future capital requirements may be substantial as we seek to expand our operations, diversify our product offering, and pursue acquisitions and equity investments. In addition, we incurred accrued payables to related parties of RMB4.7 million (US$0.7 million) and accounts payable of RMB0.9 million (US$0.1 million)

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as of December 31, 2020. If our cash resources are insufficient to satisfy our cash requirements, we may seek to issue additional equity or debt securities or obtain new or expanded credit facilities or enter into additional factoring arrangements.

Our ability to obtain external financing in the future is subject to a variety of uncertainties, including our future financial condition, results of operations and cash flows and the liquidity of international capital and lending markets. In addition, our loan agreements may contain financial covenants that restrict our ability to incur additional indebtedness or to distribute dividends. Any indebtedness that we may incur in the future may also contain operating and financial covenants that could further restrict our operations. We cannot assure you that financing will be available in a timely manner or in amounts or on terms acceptable to us, or at all. A large amount of bank borrowings and other debt may result in a significant increase in interest expense while at the same time exposing us to increased interest rate risks. Equity financings could result in dilution to our shareholders, and the securities issued in future financings may have rights, preferences and privileges that are senior to those of our ordinary shares. Any failure to raise needed funds on terms favorable to us, or at all, could severely restrict our liquidity as well as have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition.

We may not be able to price our products at our desired margins as a result of any decrease in our bargaining power or changes in market conditions.

We set prices for our products based on various internal and external factors, such as the cost of production, the technological contents of our products, market conditions, and competition we face. Our ability to set favorable prices at our desired margins and accurately estimate costs, among other factors, has a significant impact on our profitability. We cannot assure you that we will be able to maintain our pricing or bargaining power or that our gross profit margin will not be driven down by market conditions or other factors. If we see higher pricing pressure due to intensified competition from other manufacturers, decreases in prices to our customers in the end market or any other reasons, or if we otherwise lose bargaining power due to weaker demand for our products, we may need to reduce the prices and lower the margins of our products. Moreover, we may not be able to accurately estimate our costs or pass on all or part of any increase in our costs of production, and in particular, the costs of raw materials, components and parts, to our customers. As a result, our results of operations and financial condition could be materially and adversely affected.

We may be exposed to credit risks and concentration of credit risks in relation to defaults from counterparties.

Although we require our customers to make full payment for our HTC and HPC solutions before delivery of products, and we generally do not offer credit sales to customers, we cannot assure you that we will not offer credit sales to our customers in the future due to various internal or external factors, such as the decrease in our bargaining power and changes in industry conditions. If this happens, a drop in the prices of Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin may result in lower economic returns for mining activities of our customers and adversely affect their businesses and financial condition, which may further affect their credit profiles and their ability to settle accounts receivables. In addition, if we start to offer credit sales, we may also face concentration of credit risks associated with our business. Our exposure to credit risk may be influenced mainly by the individual characteristics of each customer as well as the industry or country in which the customers operate, and may be concentrated on few number of customers. Although we will monitor our exposure to credit risk on an ongoing basis and make periodic judgment on impairment of overdue receivables based on the likelihood of collectability in the case where we start offer credit sales to our customers, we cannot assure you that all of our counterparties are creditworthy and reputable and will not default on payments in the future. If we encounter significant delays or defaults in payment by our customers or are otherwise unable to recover our accounts receivables, our cash flow, liquidity and financial condition may be materially and adversely affected.

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If we are unable to manage our growth or execute our strategies effectively, our business, results of operations and financial condition may be materially and adversely affected.

We plan to expand the application scenarios, including but not limited to data centers and vision computing, by enhancing the quality and variety of our chip products and solution offerings to better serve existing customers and attract new customers. We may fail to successfully execute our expansion plan due to our limited resources and other reasons beyond our control. For example, the gain we obtain from the sales of our existing HTC and HPC solutions may not cover our expenses of development due to a prolonged depression of cryptocurrency prices. In addition, we may face relevant restrictions from existing and future regulations in connection with our expansion into these new business areas. See “—Risks Relating to Our Industry—It may be or become illegal to acquire, own, hold, sell or use cryptocurrencies, participate in the blockchain, transfer or utilize similar bitcoin assets in China or overseas markets where we operate due to adverse changes in the regulatory and policy environment in these jurisdictions.” While we have been closely monitoring the development of the relevant regulations and have been in communication with regulatory authorities, these new business initiatives may not be viable due to regulatory concerns. Should we fail to successfully manage our growth or implement our strategies, the resources we allocate to the new business lines will be wasted, and our business, results of operations and financial condition could be materially and adversely affected.

High customer concentration exposes us to all of the risks faced by our major customers and may subject us to significant fluctuations or declines in revenues.

Our customers include both enterprises and individuals. A limited number of our major customers, however, have contributed a significant portion of our revenues in the past. In 2020, we generated approximately 45.7% of our total revenues from our largest customer and approximately 94.2% from the top five largest customers. Although we continually seek to diversify our customer base, we cannot assure you that the proportion of the revenue contribution from these customers to our total revenues will decrease in the near future. Dependence on a limited number of major customers will expose us to the risks of substantial losses and extend the turnover days if any of them reduces or even ceases business collaborations with us. Specifically, any one of the following events, among others, may cause material fluctuations or declines in our revenues and have a material and adverse effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects:

If we fail to maintain relationships with these major customers, and if we are unable to find replacement customers on commercially desirable terms or in a timely manner or at all, our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects may be materially and adversely affected.

Our prepayments to suppliers may subject us to counterparty risk associated with such suppliers and negatively affect our liquidity.

We are required to prepay some of our suppliers before the service is provided to secure the supplier’s production capacity. The amount of our prepayments may significantly increase as we continue to pursue technological advancement. We are subject to counterparty risk exposure to our suppliers. Any failure by our suppliers to perform their contract obligations on a timely manner and/or with our requested quality may cause us fail to fulfill customers’ orders accordingly. In such event, we may not be able to regain the prepayment in a timely manner or in full, even though our suppliers are obligated to return such prepayments under specified

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circumstances as previously agreed upon. Furthermore, if the cash outflows for the prepayments significantly exceed the cash inflows during any period, our future liquidity position will be adversely affected.

If we fail to maintain appropriate inventory levels in line with the approximate level of demand for our products, we could lose sales or face excessive inventory risks and holding costs.

On the one hand, to operate our business successfully and meet our customers’ demands and expectations, although we usually only offer advance sale in most of circumstances, we must still maintain a certain level of finished goods inventory to ensure immediate delivery when required. We are also required to maintain an appropriate level of raw materials for our production. However, forecasts are inherently uncertain. If our forecasted demand is lower than what eventually transpires, we may not be able to maintain an adequate inventory level of our finished goods or produce our products in a timely manner, and we may lose sales and market share to our competitors. On the other hand, we may also be exposed to increased inventory risks due to accumulated excess inventory of our products or raw materials, parts and components for our products. Excess inventory levels may lead to increases in inventory holding costs, risks of inventory obsolescence and provisions for write-downs, which will materially and adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

In order to maintain an appropriate inventory level of finished goods and raw materials to meet market demand, we adjust our procurement amount and production schedule from time to time based on customers’ orders and anticipated demand. We also carry out an inventory review and an aging analysis on a regular basis. We may make provision for the obsolete and slow-moving inventory of raw materials and finished goods that are no longer suitable for use in production or sale depending on future changes of our inventory strategy. However, we cannot guarantee that these measures will always be effective and that we will be able to maintain an appropriate inventory level. We may also be exposed to the risk of holding excessive inventory, including older generation IC products that are less marketable which may increase our inventory holding costs and subject us to the risk of inventory obsolescence or write-offs, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition. If we cannot maintain an appropriate inventory level, we may lose sales and market share to our competitors.

Our export of products to foreign countries such as the United States, may be subject to high tariff rates resulting from protectionism trade policies, and as a result, our future sales volumes, profitability and results of operations will be materially and adversely affected.

Historically, only a small portion of our products were exported to the United States. However, as our sales continue to ramp up, export of our products to the United States may increase. The United States and China had previously been involved in controversy over trade barriers in China that have threatened a trade war between these two countries, and had implemented or proposed to implement tariffs on certain imported products. Though we are not aware of any trade policies announced by the United States that may directly impact the export of our IC products as of the date of this prospectus, we cannot accurately predict whether any anti-dumping duties, tariffs or quota fees will be imposed on our HTC and HPC solutions by the United States in the future. Any export requirements, tariffs, taxes and other restrictions and charges imposed by the United States on our IC products could significantly increase our customers’ purchase costs of our products and make our products less competitive in the U.S. market. As a result, our future sales volumes, profitability and results of operations could be adversely affected.

In addition, we also intend to increase our export of HTC and HPC solutions and distributed computing and data storage solutions to other overseas markets such as the European Union. However, the worldwide populism trend that calls for protectionism trade policy and potential international trade disputes could cause turbulence in the international markets. These government policies or trade barriers could increase the prices of our products and cause us to lose our sales and market share to our competitors in these countries.

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We may be unable to make the substantial research and development investments that are required to remain competitive in our business.

Advances in technologies, such as blockchain, artificial intelligence and cloud computing, have led to increased demand for ICs of higher performance and power efficiency for solving computational problems of increasing complexity. We intend to broaden our product offerings to design and develop solutions covering more application scenarios, including vision computing and privacy computing. We are committed to investing in new product development in order to stay competitive in our markets. Nevertheless, if we are unable to generate enough revenue or raise enough capital to make adequate research and development investments going forward, our product development and relevant research and development initiatives may be restricted or delayed, or we may not be able to keep pace with the latest market trends and satisfy our customers’ needs, which could materially and adversely affect our results of operations. Furthermore, our substantial research and development expenditures may not yield the expected results that enable us to roll out new products, which in turn will harm our prospects and results of operations.

We require various approvals, licenses, permits and certifications to operate our business. If we fail to obtain or renew any of these approvals, licenses, permits or certifications, it could materially and adversely affect our business and results of operations.

In accordance with the laws and regulations in the jurisdictions in which we operate, we are required to maintain various approvals, licenses, permits and certifications in order to operate our business or engage in the business we plan to enter into. Complying with such laws and regulations may require substantial expenses, any non-compliance may expose us to liability. In the event of that government authorities consider us to be in non-compliance, we may have to incur significant expenses and divert substantial management time to rectify the incidents. If we fail to obtain all the necessary approvals, licenses, permits and certifications, we may be subject to fines or the suspension of operations of the facilities that do not have the requisite approvals, licenses, permits or certifications, which would adversely affect our reputation, business and results of operations. See “Regulation” for further details on the requisite approvals license permits and certifications.

We may encounter difficulties in recruiting and retaining key personnel.

Our future growth and success depend to a significant extent on the continuing service and contribution of our engineers and senior management personnel. Many of these key personnel are highly skilled and experienced and are difficult to recruit and retain, particularly as we seek to expand our business with respect to the HTC and HPC solutions and distributed computing and data storage solutions. Competition for recruiting qualified personnel is intense, and recruiting personnel with the combination of skills and attributes required to execute our business strategy may be difficult, time-consuming and expensive. As a result, the loss of any key personnel or failure to recruit, train or retain qualified personnel could have a significant negative impact on our operations.

We may become a target for public scrutiny, including complaints to regulatory agencies, negative media coverage, and malicious allegations, all of which could severely damage our reputation and materially and adversely affect our business and prospects.

We may become a target for public scrutiny, including complaints to regulatory agencies, negative media coverage, and malicious allegations. Certain features of cryptocurrency networks, such as decentralization, independence from sovereignty and anonymity of transactions, create the possibility of heightened attention from the public, regulators and the media. Heightened regulatory and public concerns over us and cryptocurrency-related issues may subject us to additional legal and social responsibilities and increased scrutiny and negative publicity over these issues, due to our leading position in the industry. From time to time, these allegations, regardless of their veracity, may result in consumer dissatisfaction, public protests or negative publicity, which could result in government inquiry or substantial harm to our brand, reputation and operations.

Moreover, as our business expands and grows, both organically and through acquisitions of and investments in other businesses, domestically and internationally, we may be exposed to heightened public scrutiny in

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jurisdictions where we already operate as well as in new jurisdictions where we may operate. We cannot assure you that we would not become a target for regulatory or public scrutiny in the future or that scrutiny and public exposure would not severely damage our reputation as well as our business and prospects.

We may face difficulties in protecting our intellectual property rights.

We rely on our intellectual property rights, and in particular, our patents, software copyrights and our registered IC layout designs of our ICs. Even though we have successfully registered certain of our intellectual property rights in China, it may be possible for a third party to imitate or use our intellectual property rights without authorization. Additionally, we have developed and utilized some intellectual property that has not been registered. If a third party misuses or misappropriates our intellectual property, we may not be able to easily differentiate our products from the others in the market. As a result, we may be forced into an adverse price competition that reduces our profit margin. As we develop new technologies, we will need to continue to apply for intellectual property rights protections. There is no guarantee that we will be able to obtain valid and enforceable intellectual property rights in China or in other relevant jurisdictions as needed. Even when we are able to obtain such protections, there is no guarantee that we will be able to effectively enforce our rights.

In this respect, we may incur expenses and efforts to monitor and enforce our intellectual property rights. Infringement of our intellectual property rights and the resulting diversion of resources to protect such rights through litigation or other means could also adversely affect our profitability.

Third parties have claimed and may, from time to time, assert or claim that we infringed their intellectual property rights, and any failure to protect our intellectual property rights could have a material adverse impact on our business.

We operate in an industry where players own a large number of patents and other intellectual property rights that are material to operations and will vigorously pursue, protect and defend these rights. Our competitors or other third parties may allege to own intellectual property rights and interests that could potentially conflict with our own. It is difficult to monitor all of the patent applications and other intellectual property rights protection registrations or applications that may be filed in China or in other relevant jurisdictions. If we offer products that may potentially infringe on such pending applications and the applications are granted, third parties may initiate intellectual infringement claims against us.

As we expand our operations with new products and into new markets, the chances of encountering infringement claims by third parties will increase. We may incur substantial costs in defending or settling such disputes and such actions could divert significant resources and management attention. If any such claim against us is successful, we may not have a legal right to continue to manufacture and sell the relevant products that are found to have incorporated the disputed intellectual property. The success of such claims may also result in an increase in our costs, including additional royalties, licensing fees or further research and development costs to develop non-infringing alternatives, and negatively affect our profitability. Moreover, such claims, whether successful or not, may cause significant damage to our reputation and a loss of customers, as a result of which our business, results of operations and financial condition could be materially and adversely affected.

Cybersecurity incidents, including data security breaches or computer viruses, could harm our business by disrupting our delivery of services, damaging our reputation or exposing us to liability.

We receive, process, store and transmit, often electronically, the data of our customers and others, much of which is confidential. Unauthorized access to our computer systems or stored data could result in the theft, including cyber-theft, or improper disclosure of confidential information, and the deletion or modification of records could cause interruptions in our operations. These cyber-security risks increase when we transmit information from one location to another, including over the Internet or other electronic networks. Despite the security measures we have implemented, our facilities, systems and procedures, and those of our third-party

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service providers, may be vulnerable to security breaches, acts of vandalism, software viruses, misplaced or lost data, programming or human errors or other similar events which may disrupt our delivery of services or expose the confidential information of our customers and others. Any security breach involving the misappropriation, loss or other unauthorized disclosure or use of confidential information of our customers or others, whether by us or a third party, could subject us to civil and criminal penalties, have a negative impact on our reputation, or expose us to liability to our customers, third parties or government authorities. We are not aware of such breaches to date. Any of these developments could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition.

If we suffer failure or disruption in our information systems, our ability to effectively manage our business operations could be adversely affected.

We use information systems to obtain, process, analyze and manage data crucial to our business such as our enterprise resource planning system. We use these systems to, among other things, monitor the daily operations of our business, maintain operating and financial data, manage our distribution network as well as manage our research and development activities, production operations and quality control systems. Any system damage or failure that interrupts data input, retrieval or transmission or increases service time could disrupt our normal operations. In particular, our operations could be disrupted if such damage or failure includes any security breach caused by hacking or cybersecurity incidents, involves efforts to gain unauthorized access to our information or systems, or causes intentional malfunctions, loss or corruption of data, software or hardware, the intentional or inadvertent transmission of computer viruses and similar events or third-party actions. We cannot assure you that we will be able to effectively handle a failure of our information systems, or that we will be able to restore our operational capacity in a timely manner to avoid disruption to our business. The occurrence of any of these events could adversely affect our ability to effectively manage our business operations and negatively impact our reputation.

We currently do not have insurance coverage covering all risks related to our business and operations.

We do not maintain insurance policies covering all of our business risks, such as risks relating to properties, receivables, goods in transit and public liability. We cannot assume you that the insurance coverage we currently have would be sufficient to cover our potential losses. See “Business—Insurance” for more information on the insurance policies maintained by us. In the event there is any damage to any assets or incidents for which we do not have sufficient insurance coverage, if at all, we would have to pay for the difference ourselves where our cash flow and liquidity could be negatively affected.

If we fail to comply with labor, work safety or environmental regulations, we could be exposed to penalties, fines, suspensions or action in other forms.

Our operations are subject to the labor, work safety and environmental protection laws and regulations promulgated by the PRC government. These laws and regulations require us to pay social insurance, maintain safe working conditions and adopt effective measures to control and properly dispose of solid waste and other environmental pollutants. We could be exposed to penalties, fines, suspensions or actions in other forms if we fail to comply with these laws and regulations. The laws and regulations in China may be amended from time to time and changes in those laws and regulations may cause us to incur additional costs in order to comply with the more stringent rules. In the event that changes to existing laws and regulations require us to incur additional compliance costs or require costly changes to our production process, our costs could increase and we may suffer a decline in sales for certain products, as a result of which our business, results of operations and financial condition could be materially and adversely affected.

Our business operations and international expansion are subject to geopolitical risks.

Our business operation and international expansion is subject to geopolitical risks. Any significant deterioration in the international relationship may have a negative impact on the ability of our production

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partners to fulfill their contractual obligations and ship the IC products to us, which could have a material and adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We exported our products to various countries outside of China and derive sales from exporting to those countries, and we intend to continue to sell our current and future products to countries outside of China. Additionally, we rely on the supply of certain tools, such as our electronic design automation, a development tool, from certain overseas providers. Changes to trade policies, treaties and tariffs in or affecting the jurisdictions in which we operate and to which we sell our products, or the perception that these changes could occur, could adversely affect the financial and economic conditions in those jurisdictions, as well as our international sales, results of operations and financial condition.

Any global systemic economic and financial crisis could negatively affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Any prolonged slowdown in the Chinese or global economy may have a negative impact on our business, results of operations and financial condition. For example, the global financial markets have experienced significant disruptions since 2008 and the United States, Europe and other economies have experienced periods of recession. The recovery from the lows of 2008 and 2009 has been uneven and there are new challenges, including the escalation of the European sovereign debt crisis from 2011 and the slowdown of the PRC’s economic growth since 2012, which may continue. The market panics over the global outbreak of coronavirus COVID-19 and the drop in oil price have materially and negatively affected the global financial markets in March 2020, which may cause a potential slowdown of the world’s economy. See “—Risks Relating to Our Operations—The ongoing global coronavirus COVID-19 outbreak has caused significant disruptions in our business, which we expect will materially and adversely affect our results of operations and financial condition.” Additionally, there is considerable uncertainty over the long-term effects of the expansionary monetary and fiscal policies adopted by the central banks and financial authorities of some of the world’s leading economies, including the United States and China. There have also been concerns over unrest in Ukraine, the Middle East and Africa, which have resulted in volatility in financial and other markets. There have also been concerns over the United Kingdom leaving the European Union as well as the significant potential changes to United States trade policies, treaties and tariffs, including trade policies and tariffs regarding China. There have also been concerns about the economic effect of the tensions in the relationship between China and surrounding Asian countries. There were and could be in the future a number of domino effects from such turmoil on our business, including significant decreases in orders from our customers; insolvency of key suppliers resulting in product delays; inability of customers to obtain credit to finance purchases of our products and/or customer insolvencies; and counterparty failures negatively impacting our operations. Any systemic economic or financial crisis could cause revenues for the semiconductor industry as a whole to decline dramatically and could materially and adversely affect our results of operations.

We face risks of natural disasters, acts of God and occurrence of epidemics, which could severely disrupt our business operations.

Natural disasters, epidemics and other acts of God which are beyond our control may adversely affect the economy, infrastructure and livelihood of the people in China and may materially and adversely affect our operations as our facilities and offices are located in China. Material damage to, or the loss of, such facilities due to fire, severe weather, flood, earthquake, or other acts of God or cause may not be adequately covered by proceeds of our insurance coverage and could materially and adversely affect our business and results of operations. Any outbreaks of contagious disease, acts of war or terrorist attacks may cause damage or disruption to our business, our employees and our markets, any of which could adversely impact our business, results of operations and financial condition.

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If we grant employees share options or other equity incentives in the future, our net income could be adversely affected.

We plan to adopt a share incentive plan and may grant options after its adoption. We are required to account for share-based compensation expenses in accordance with Financial Accounting Standards Board Accounting Standards Codification Topic 718, Compensation—Stock Compensation, which generally requires a company to recognize, as an expense, the fair value of share options and other equity incentives to employees based on the fair value of equity awards on the date of the grant, with the compensation expense recognized over the period in which the recipient is required to provide service in exchange for the equity award. If we grant options or other equity incentives in the future, we could incur significant compensation charges and our financial condition could be adversely affected.

If we fail to implement and maintain an effective system of internal controls to remediate our material weakness over financial reporting, we may be unable to accurately or timely report our results of operations, meet our reporting obligations or prevent fraud, and investor confidence and the market price of the ADSs may be materially and adversely affected.

Prior to this offering, we have been a private company with limited accounting and financial reporting personnel and other resources to address our internal controls and procedures. In connection with the audits of our consolidated financial statements as of and for the years ended December 31, 2019 and 2020, we and our independent registered public accounting firm identified one material weakness in our internal control over financial reporting. As defined in the standards established by the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board of the United States, a “material weakness” is a deficiency, or a combination of deficiencies, in internal control over financial reporting such that there is a reasonable possibility that a material misstatement of the company’s annual or interim financial statements will not be prevented or detected on a timely basis. The material weakness identified is related to lack of sufficient accounting personnel who possess adequate knowledge in financial reporting in accordance with U.S. GAAP. We intend to implement a number of measures to address this material weakness in our internal control over financial reporting. We cannot assure you, however, that these measures may fully address these deficiencies in our internal control over financial reporting or that we may conclude that they have been fully remedied.

Upon the completion of this offering, we will become a public company in the United States subject to the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, or Section 404, will require that we include a report of management on our internal control over financial reporting in our annual report on Form 20-F beginning with our second annual report on Form 20-F after becoming a public company. In addition, once we cease to be an “emerging growth company” as such term is defined in the JOBS Act, our independent registered public accounting firm must attest to and report on the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting. Our management may conclude that our internal control over financial reporting is not effective. Moreover, even if our management concludes that our internal control over financial reporting is effective, our independent registered public accounting firm, after conducting its own independent testing, may issue a report that is qualified if it is not satisfied with our internal controls or the level at which our controls are documented, designed, operated or reviewed, or if it interprets the relevant requirements differently from us. In addition, after we become a public company, our reporting obligations may place a significant strain on our management, operational and financial resources and systems for the foreseeable future. We may be unable to timely complete our evaluation testing and any required remediation. During the course of documenting and testing our internal control procedures, in order to satisfy the requirements of Section 404, we may identify other weaknesses and deficiencies in our internal control over financial reporting.

In addition, if we fail to maintain the adequacy of our internal control over financial reporting, as these standards are modified, supplemented or amended from time to time, we may not be able to conclude on an ongoing basis that we have effective internal control over financial reporting in accordance with Section 404. Generally, if we fail to achieve and maintain an effective internal control environment, we could suffer material

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misstatements in our financial statements and fail to meet our reporting obligations, which would likely cause investors to lose confidence in our reported financial information. This could in turn limit our access to capital markets, harm our results of operations, and lead to a decline in the trading price of the ADSs. Additionally, ineffective internal control over financial reporting could expose us to increased risk of fraud or misuse of corporate assets and subject us to potential delisting from the stock exchange on which we list, regulatory investigations and civil or criminal sanctions. We may also be required to restate our financial statements from prior periods.

Risks Relating to Our Industry

It may be or become illegal to acquire, own, hold, sell or use cryptocurrencies, participate in the blockchain, transfer or utilize similar bitcoin assets in China or overseas markets where we operate due to adverse changes in the regulatory and policy environment in these jurisdictions.

We generated all of our revenue from sales in China in 2020. Our blockchain mining solution business could be significantly affected by, among other things, the regulatory and policy developments in China and overseas jurisdictions. Governmental authorities are likely to continue to issue new laws, rules and regulations governing the blockchain and cryptocurrency industry we operate in and enhance enforcement of existing laws, rules and regulations. For example, the People’s Bank of China, or the PBOC, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, State Administration for Industry and Commerce, China Banking Regulatory Commission, China Securities Regulatory Commission and China Insurance Regulatory Commission issued “Announcement on Preventing Token Fundraising Risks” on September 4, 2017, prohibiting all organizations and individuals from engaging in initial coin offering transactions. On May 21, 2021, the Financial Stability and Development Committee of the PRC State Council mentioned the need to resolutely crack down on bitcoin mining and trading activities. On June 18, 2021, the “Notice of the Sichuan Provincial Development and Reform Commission and the Sichuan Provincial Energy Administration on the Cleanup and Shutdown of Virtual Currency Mining Projects” required electricity companies within Sichuan Province in China to close down power supply to businesses involved in cryptocurrency mining. Furthermore, on June 21, 2021, the PBOC was reported to have held interviews with certain financial institutions in China, and stressed that banks and other financial institutions in China shall strictly implement the “Guarding Against Bitcoin Risks” and the “Announcement on Preventing Token Fundraising Risks” and other regulatory requirements, diligently fulfill their customer identification obligations, and shall not provide account opening, registration, trading, clearing, settlement and other services related to blockchain and cryptocurrency business. These regulations may severely restrict our ability to expand our business or serve our customers in China. We cannot assure you that government authorities in China will not introduce further enhanced regulation over the cryptocurrency industry that may lead to our inability to operate in China at all.

In light of these developments in China, we are in the process of expanding our business in the overseas IC markets. We may be subject to restrictions relating to the transfer of blockchain mining solutions out of China, as China has recently strengthened regulations on exports of goods, technology and services. Specifically, for computers and related components used in blockchain mining solutions, exporting enterprises should carefully evaluate whether the mining solutions, their components, and any data or information contained are subject to export restrictions, and therefore are required to go through relevant export licensing procedures before such mining solutions can be transported out of China. The relevant restrictions that apply to the transfer of blockchain mining solutions by us include, but are not limited to, the Catalogue of Goods Prohibited from Export, the Catalogue of Goods Subject to Export License Management, the Catalogue of Technologies Prohibited from Export and Restricted from Export in China, the Catalogue for the Administration of Import and Export Licenses of Dual-use Items and Technologies, and other applicable export control catalogues and lists. If we are deemed to have violated export restrictions or data security regulations in China or otherwise become subject to government interferences, we may be subject to administrative penalties or criminal investigation by relevant government authorities and our business expansion in overseas markets may be delayed, interrupted or compromised.

Some jurisdictions, including China, restrict various uses of cryptocurrencies, including the use of cryptocurrencies as a medium of exchange, the conversion between cryptocurrencies and fiat currencies or between cryptocurrencies, the provision of trading and other services related to cryptocurrencies by financial

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institutions and payment institutions, and initial coin offerings and other means of capital raising based on cryptocurrencies. We cannot assure you that these jurisdictions will not enact new laws or regulations that further restrict activities related to cryptocurrencies.

In addition, cryptocurrencies may be used by market participants for black market transactions to conduct fraud, money laundering and terrorism-funding, tax evasion, economic sanction evasion or other illegal activities. As a result, governments may seek to regulate, restrict, control or ban the mining, use, holding and transferring of cryptocurrencies. We may not be able to eliminate all instances where other parties use our products to engage in money laundering or other illegal or improper activities. We cannot assure you that we will successfully detect and prevent all money laundering or other illegal or improper activities which may adversely affect our reputation, business, financial condition and results of operations. With advances in technology, cryptocurrencies are likely to undergo significant changes in the future. It remains uncertain whether Bitcoin, Ethereum, Grin, Filecoin or Chia will be able to comply with, or benefit from, those changes. In addition, as mining activities employ sophisticated and high computing power devices that need to consume large amounts of electricity to operate, future developments in the regulation of energy consumption, including possible restrictions on energy usage in the jurisdictions where we sell our products, may also affect our business operations and the demand for our blockchain mining solutions. There has been negative public reaction to the environmental impact of mining activities, particularly the large consumption of electricity, and governments of various jurisdictions have responded. For example, in the United States, certain local governments of the state of Washington have discussed measures to address the environmental impacts of Bitcoin-related operations, such as the high electricity consumption of Bitcoin mining activities.

The current regulatory environment in foreign markets, including the United States, and any adverse changes in that environment, could have a material adverse impact on our blockchain products business.

We currently export our products to various overseas markets and intend to develop our business and operations in jurisdictions outside China in the future. Our blockchain mining solution business could therefore be significantly affected by regulatory developments in jurisdictions outside China, including the United States. Governmental authorities, including those in the United States, oversee certain aspects of the cryptocurrency markets, have taken actions based on current laws and regulations, and are likely to continue to issue new laws, rules and regulations governing the cryptocurrency industry we operate in. As a result, and as discussed further below, existing and future regulations affecting the mining, holding, using or transferring of cryptocurrencies may adversely affect our future business operations and results of operations, and could even result in our or our customers’ liability for activities conducted by our customers. As described under United States federal and state securities laws may specifically limit our ability and the ability of our customers to use our blockchain mining solutions where these operations are conducted in connection with cryptocurrencies that are considered “securities” for purposes of U.S. law. The likely status of cryptocurrencies as securities could limit distributions, transfers or other actions involving such cryptocurrencies, including mining, in the United States. For example, the distribution of cryptocurrencies to miners through the mining process could be deemed to involve an illegal offering or distribution of securities subject to federal or state law. In addition, miners on cryptocurrency networks could, under certain circumstances, be viewed as statutory underwriters or as “brokers” subject to regulation under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934. This could require us or our customers to change, limit, or cease their mining operations, register as broker-dealers and comply with applicable law, or be subject to penalties, including fines. In addition, we could have liability for facilitating their illegal activities.

Furthermore, cryptocurrencies are subject to additional U.S. laws and regulations related to transactions in commodities as enforced by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission, or CFTC, and to money transmission, money service business, anti-money laundering, and know-your-customer activities as enforced by the Department of the Treasury’s Financial Crimes Enforcement Network, or FinCEN, and by state governments.

We or our customers could be subject to regulatory restrictions or regulatory actions based on these laws and regulations.

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Any restrictions imposed by a foreign government could force us to restructure operations, perhaps significantly, which could result in significant costs and inefficiencies that harm our profitability, or even cause us to cease operations in the applicable jurisdiction. In addition, existing and proposed laws and regulations can delay or impede the development of new products, result in negative publicity, decrease demand for our products, require significant management time and attention, and subject us to claims or other remedies, including fines or demands that we modify or cease existing business practices.

In addition, any action brought against us or our customers by a foreign regulator, or by an individual in a private action, based on foreign law could cause us or our customers to incur significant legal expenses and divert our management’s attention from the operation of the business. If our or our customers’ operations are found to be in violation of any laws and regulations, we or they may be subject to penalties associated with the violation, including civil and criminal penalties, damages and fines. This could in turn require us to curtail or cease all or some operations. Regulatory action or regulatory change could also decrease demand for our products, which would be harmful to the success of our business.

The industries in which we operate are characterized by constant changes. If we fail to continuously innovate and provide products that meet the expectations of our customers, we may be unable to attract new customers or retain existing customers, and hence our business and results of operations may be adversely affected.

The industries in which we operate are characterized by constant changes, including rapid technological evolution, continual shifts in customer demands, frequent introductions of new products and solutions, and constant emergence of new industry standards and practices. Thus, our success will depend, in part, on our ability to respond to these changes in a cost-effective and timely manner. We need to anticipate the emergence of new technologies and assess their market acceptance. We also need to invest significant resources in research and development in order to keep our products competitive in the market.

However, research and development activities are inherently uncertain, and we might encounter practical difficulties in commercializing our research and development results, which could result in excessive research and development expenses or delays. Given the fast pace with which blockchain has been and will continue to be developed, we may not be able to timely upgrade our technologies in an efficient and cost-effective manner, or at all. In addition, new developments in artificial intelligence, deep learning, Internet-of-things, computer vision, blockchain and cryptocurrency could render our products obsolete or unattractive. If we are unable to keep up with the technological developments and anticipate market trends, or if new technologies render our technologies or solutions obsolete, customers may no longer be attracted to our products. As a result, our business, results of operations and financial condition would be materially and adversely affected.

Increasing mining difficulty could result in downward pressure on the expected economic returns on Bitcoin, Ethereum and Grin mining.

The mining difficulty for Bitcoin, Ethereum and Grin, or the amount of computational resources required for a set amount of reward for recording a new block, directly affects the expected economic returns for Bitcoin, Ethereum and Grin miners, which in turn affects the demand for our HTC and HPC solutions. Mining difficulty is a measure of how much computing power is required to record a new block, and it is affected by the total amount of computing power in the Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin network. Taking Bitcoin as an example, the Bitcoin algorithm is designed so that one block is generated, on average, every ten minutes, no matter how much computing power is in the network. Thus, as more computing power joins the network, and assuming the rate of block creation does not change (remaining at one block generated every ten minutes), the amount of computing power required to generate each block and hence the mining difficulty increases. In other words, based on the current design of the Bitcoin network, Bitcoin mining difficulty would increase together with the total computing power available in the Bitcoin network, which is in turn affected by the number of Bitcoin mining machines in operation. For example, Bitcoin mining difficulty would increase based on increases in the total computing power available in the Bitcoin network, which is in turn affected by the number of Bitcoin mining machines in

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operation. From January 2017 to December 2019, Bitcoin mining difficulty increased by approximately 35 times, according to Blockchain.info. The same applies to Ethereum. As a result, a strong growth in sales of our HTC and HPC solutions can contribute to further growth in the total computing power in each cryptocurrency’s respective network, thereby driving up the difficulty of mining and resulting in downward pressure on the expected economic return of blockchain mining and the demand for, and pricing of, our products. Although, in May 2021, more than 54% of Bitcoin’s hash rate, which is the collective computing power of miners worldwide, has dropped off the network since its market peak as China cracked down on mining, the Bitcoin network may recovery from such decrease in the hash rate very soon and drive up the mining difficult again.

In addition, the number of Bitcoins awarded for solving a block in the blockchain halves approximately every four years until the estimated complete depletion of Bitcoin by around the year 2140. In each of 2013, 2014 and 2015, approximately 25 Bitcoins were awarded for each block solved. The number of Bitcoins awarded for solving a block halved in 2016 to 12.5 Bitcoins per block and halved in 2020 to 6.25 Bitcoins per block. It is expected to halve again in 2024 to 3.125 Bitcoins per block. It is unclear how the market will react to future reward halving events and how the Bitcoin price and the expected economic returns on Bitcoin mining will be affected. Similar mechanism applies to Ethereum and Grin as well.

Aside from mining rewards, transaction fees are another form of incentive for participation in Bitcoin, Ethereum and Grin verification processes. Bitcoin, Ethereum and Grin users may offer to pay a discretionary transaction fee to the network member who solves the block and adds that user’s transaction to the blockchain to incentivize prioritizing that user’s transaction. Transaction fees are discretionary, so if the transaction fees were to become the only or primary income for Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin mining activities in the future, the expected economic returns from Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin mining and therefore the demand for our HTC and HPC solutions will decrease significantly, which will result in a significant negative impact on our business and results of operations.

If any person, institution or a pool of them acting in concert obtains control of more than 50% of the processing power active on the Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin, such person, institution or a pool of them could prevent new transactions from gaining confirmations, halt payments between users, and reverse previously completed transactions, which would erode user confidence in Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin.

If the award of Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin for solving blocks and transaction fees for recording transactions are not sufficiently high to incentivize miners, miners may cease expending processing power to solve blocks. Miners ceasing operations would reduce the collective processing power on the Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin network, which would adversely affect the confirmation process for transactions and make the Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin network more vulnerable to any person, institution or a pool of them which has obtained over 50% control over the computing power on the Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin network. In such event, such person, institution or a pool of them could prevent new transactions from gaining confirmation, halt payments between users, and reverse previously completed transactions. Such changes or any reduction in confidence in the confirmation process or processing power of the Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin network may erode user confidence in Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin, which would decrease the demand for our products.

The decentralized nature of cryptocurrency may be subject to challenges, which could negatively affect our results of operations.

A key reason for Bitcoin, Ethereum, Grin and other cryptocurrencies to have attracted many new and committed users in a short period of time is its decentralized nature, or the lack of control by a central authority. However, there are divergent views on the decentralized nature of cryptocurrencies. For example, there are claims that most of the actual services and businesses built within the Bitcoin ecosystem are in fact centralized since they are run by specific people, in specific locations, with specific computer systems, and that they are susceptible to specific regulations. Individuals, companies or groups, as well as cryptocurrency exchanges that control vast amounts of Bitcoin can affect the market price of Bitcoin. Furthermore, mining equipment production and mining pool locations may become centralized. The concerns or skepticism about the

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decentralized nature of Bitcoin may cause customers to lose confidence in the Bitcoin industry’s prospects. This in turn could adversely affect the market demand for our blockchain mining solutions and our business. Furthermore, the possibility that a person or a coordinated group of people may gain more than 50% control of the process power active on Bitcoin and be able to manipulate transactions, despite the intended decentralized structure, may also erode confidence in Bitcoin. Similar mechanism also applies to Ethereum and Grin. As such, our business, prospects and results of operations therefore may adversely be affected by the divergent views on the decentralized nature of Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies.

Change of algorithm and mining mechanism for cryptocurrencies may materially and adversely affect our business and results of operations.

Our HPC and HTC chips are designed for proof-of-work, or POW, mechanism, which the Bitcoin, Ethereum and Grin networks use to validate their transactions. Many people within the Bitcoin community believe that POW is a foundation within Bitcoin’s code that would not be changed. However, there have been debates on mechanism change to avoid the “de facto control” by a great majority of the network computing power. With the possibility of a change in rule or protocol of the Bitcoin network, if our Bitcoin mining machines cannot be modified to accommodate any such changes, such mining machines will not be able to meet customer demand, and the results of our operations will be significantly affected. For more details, see “—The administrators of certain cryptocurrency networks’ source code could propose amendments to the relevant network’s protocols and software that, if accepted and authorized by the relevant network’s community, could adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.” and “—The acceptance of Bitcoin or Ethereum network software patches or upgrades by a significant, but not overwhelming, percentage of the users and miners in the Bitcoin or Ethereum network could result in a ‘fork’ in the blockchain, resulting in the operation of two separate networks that cannot be merged. The existence of forked blockchains could erode user confidence in Bitcoin or Ethereum and could adversely impact our business, results of operations and financial condition.”

Different from Bitcoin, there has been a heated debate in the Ethereum community over whether the network should switch to proof-of-stake, or POS. POS is a type of consensus mechanism used by blockchain networks to achieve distributed consensus. This switch, if ever happened, will fundamentally change how the Ethereum blockchain comes to consensus every 12 seconds. It requires users to stake their Ethereum to become a validator in the network. Validators are responsible for the same thing as miners in POW: ordering transactions and creating new blocks so that all nodes can agree on the state of the network. Unlike POW, validators don’t need to use significant amounts of computational power because they’re selected at random and aren’t competing. They do not need to mine blocks; they just need to create blocks when chosen and validate proposed blocks when they are not. This validation is known as attesting. Validators get rewards for proposing new blocks and for attesting to ones they have seen. If this change happens, and if our Ethereum mining machines cannot be modified to accommodate such a change, our Ethereum mining solutions will not be able to meet customer demand, and the results of our operations will be significantly affected.

Customers of our HTC and HPC solutions may rely on a steady and inexpensive power supply for operating blockchain mining farms and running blockchain mining hardware. Failure to access a large quantity of power at reasonable costs could significantly increase their operating expenses and adversely affect their demand for our HTC and HPC solutions.

Many of the customers of our HTC and HPC solutions engage in the blockchain mining business. Blockchain mining consumes a significant amount of energy power to process the computations and cool down the mining hardware. Therefore, a steady and inexpensive power supply is critical to blockchain mining. We cannot assure you that the operations of our customers will not be affected by power shortages or an increase in energy prices in the future. In particular, the power supply could be disrupted by natural disasters, such as floods, mudslides and earthquakes, or other similar events beyond the control of our customers. Further, certain of our customers may experience power shortages due to seasonal variations in the supply of certain types of power such as hydroelectricity. Power shortages, power outages or increased power prices could adversely affect

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mining farm businesses of our blockchain customers and reduce the expected market demand for our HTC and HPC solutions significantly. Under such circumstances, our business, results of operations and financial condition could be materially and adversely affected.

Cryptocurrencies face significant scaling obstacles that can lead to high fees or slowed transaction settlement times, and attempts to increase the transaction processing capacity may not be effective.

Many cryptocurrency networks face significant scaling challenges. For example, as of December 31, 2019, Bitcoin network could handle, on average, five to seven transactions per second. Various solutions have been promoted recently to resolve this problem, including segregated witness, Lightening Network and the introduction of Bitcoin Cash. However, we cannot assure you that the cryptocurrencies community will accept these solutions, or these solutions will effectively resolve these problems.

As the use of cryptocurrency networks increases without a corresponding increase in throughput of the networks, average fees and settlement times can increase significantly. Bitcoin’s network, for example, has been, at times, at capacity, which has led to very high transaction fees. Increased fees and decreased settlement speeds could preclude certain use cases for Bitcoins (e.g., micropayments), and can reduce demand for and the market price of Bitcoins, which could adversely affect the market demand for our HTC and HPC solutions. We cannot guarantee that any of the mechanisms in place or being explored for increasing the scale of settlement of transactions of Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin will be effective, or how long they will take to become effective, which could adversely affect the market demand for our HTC and HPC solutions.

Cryptocurrency exchanges and wallets, and to a lesser extent, a cryptocurrency blockchain itself, may suffer from hacking and fraud risks, which may adversely erode user confidence in cryptocurrencies and reduce demand for our HTC and HPC solutions.

Cryptocurrency transactions are entirely digital and, as with any virtual system, face risk from hackers, malware and operational glitches. For example, hackers can target cryptocurrency exchanges, wallets, and custodians to gain unauthorized access to the private keys associated with the wallet addresses where cryptocurrencies are stored. Cryptocurrency transactions and accounts are not insured by any type of government program and cryptocurrency transactions generally are permanent by design of the networks. Certain features of cryptocurrency networks, such as decentralization, the open source protocols, and the reliance on peer-to-peer connectivity, may increase the risk of fraud or cyber-attack by potentially reducing the likelihood of a coordinated response. Cryptocurrencies have suffered from hacking risks and several cryptocurrency exchanges and miners have reported cryptocurrency losses, which highlight concerns over the security of cryptocurrencies and in turn affect the demand and the market price of cryptocurrencies. In addition, while cryptocurrencies use private key encryption to verify owners and register transactions, fraudsters and scammers may attempt to sell false cryptocurrencies. These risks may adversely affect the operation of the cryptocurrency network which would erode user confidence in cryptocurrencies, which would negatively affect demand for our HTC and HPC solutions.

The administrators of certain cryptocurrency networks’ source code could propose amendments to the relevant network’s protocols and software that, if accepted and authorized by the relevant network’s community, could adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

The cryptocurrency networks are based on a cryptographic, algorithmic protocol that governs the end-user-to-end-user interactions between computers connected to the relevant network. A loosely organized group can propose amendments to such a network’s source code through one or more software upgrades that alter the protocols and software that govern the network and the properties of such cryptocurrencies, including the irreversibility of transactions and limitations on the mining of new cryptocurrencies. For example, to the extent that a significant majority of the users and miners on the Bitcoin or Ethereum network install such software upgrade(s), the Bitcoin network would be subject to new protocols and software that may render our HTC and

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HPC solutions less desirable, which in turn may adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition. If less than a significant majority of the users and miners on the Bitcoin network install such software upgrade(s), the Bitcoin network could “fork.”

The acceptance of Bitcoin. Ethereum or Grin network software patches or upgrades by a significant, but not overwhelming, percentage of the users and miners in the Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin network could result in a “fork” in the blockchain, resulting in the operation of two separate networks that cannot be merged. The existence of forked blockchains could erode user confidence in Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin and could adversely impact our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Bitcoin, Ethereum and Grin are based on open source software and have no official developer or group of developers that formally controls their network. Any individual can download the Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin network software and make any desired modifications, which are proposed to users and miners on Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin network through software downloads and upgrades. However, miners and users must consent to those software modifications by downloading the altered software or upgrade implementing the changes; otherwise, the changes do not become part of the Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin network. Since the inception of Bitcoin, Ethereum and Grin networks, changes to the network have been accepted by the vast majority of blockchain users and miners, ensuring that the Bitcoin, Ethereum and Grin networks each remain a coherent economic system. However, a developer or group of developers could potentially propose a modification to the Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin network that is not accepted by a vast majority of miners and users, but that is nonetheless accepted by a substantial population of participants in the network. In such a case, a fork in the blockchain could develop and two separate networks could result, one running the pre-modification software program and the other running the modified version. An example is the introduction of Bitcoin Cash in mid-2017. This kind of split in the Bitcoin, Ethereum or Grin network could erode user confidence in the stability of the Bitcoin or Ethereum network, which could negatively affect the demand for our HTC and HPC solutions.

Cryptocurrency assets and transactions may be subject to further taxation in the future.

In recent years, the rise of cryptocurrency prices and transaction volume has attracted the attention of tax authorities. As the laws governing cryptocurrencies are still evolving, the tax treatment of cryptocurrencies in various jurisdictions are subject to change. While some countries intend to or have imposed taxation on cryptocurrency assets and transactions, other tax authorities are silent. As there is considerable uncertainty over the taxation of cryptocurrencies, we cannot guarantee that the cryptocurrency assets and transactions denominated in cryptocurrencies will not be subject to further taxation in the future, including but not limited to additional taxes and increased tax rate. These events could reduce the economic return of cryptocurrency and increase the holding costs of cryptocurrency assets, which could materially and adversely affect the businesses and financial performances of our blockchain customers engaging in blockchain mining businesses, and in turn could have material adverse effect on our business and results of operations.

We face intense industry competition.

As a fabless IC design company, we operate in a highly competitive environment. Our competitors include companies that may have a larger market share, greater brand recognition, broader international customer base, greater financial resources or other competitive advantages. We expect that competition in the HPC industry will continue to be intense as we compete not only with existing players that have been focused on blockchain mining, but also new entrants that include well-established players in the semiconductor industry, and players who were not predisposed to this industry in the past. In terms of smart-NICs, we expect to face competition from industry giants such as Broadcom and Intel as well as other existing and new players that are more established than us. Some of these competitors may also have stronger brand names, greater access to capital, longer histories, longer relationships with their suppliers or customers and more resources than we do.

Strong competition in the market may require us to lower our prices, increase our sales and marketing expenses or otherwise invest greater resources to maintain or gain market share as needed to adequately compete.

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Such efforts may negatively impact our profitability. If we are unable to effectively adapt to changes or developments in the competitive landscape, our business, financial conditions and results of operations may be adversely affected.

Blockchain mining activities are energy-intensive, which may restrict the geographic locations of miners and have a negative environmental impact.

Blockchain mining activities are inherently energy-intensive and electricity costs account for a significant portion of the overall mining costs. The availability and cost of electricity will restrict the geographic locations of mining activities. Any shortage of electricity supply or increase in electricity cost in a jurisdiction may negatively impact the viability and the expected economic return for blockchain mining activities in that jurisdiction, which may in turn decrease the sales of our HTC and HPC solutions in that jurisdiction.

In addition, the significant consumption of electricity may have a negative environmental impact, including contribution to climate change, which may give rise to public opinion against allowing the use of electricity for blockchain mining activities or government measures restricting or prohibiting the use of electricity for such mining activities. Any such development in the jurisdictions where we sell our HTC and HPC solutions could have a material and adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Risks Relating to Conducting Business in China

Recent regulatory developments in China may subject us to additional regulatory review or otherwise restrict our ability to offer securities and raise capitals overseas, all of which could materially and adversely affect our business and the value of the ADSs.

The recent regulatory developments in China, in particular with respect to restrictions on China-based companies raising capital offshore, may lead to additional regulatory review in China over our financing and capital raising activities in the United States. Pursuant to the PRC Cybersecurity Law, which was promulgated by the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress on November 7, 2016 and took effect on June 1, 2017, personal information and important data collected and generated by a critical information infrastructure operator in the course of its operations in China must be stored in China, and if a critical information infrastructure operator purchases internet products and services that affects or may affect national security, it should be subject to cybersecurity review by the Cybersecurity Administration of China, or the CAC. The PRC Cybersecurity Law also establishes more stringent requirements applicable to operators of computer networks, especially to operators of networks which involve critical information infrastructure. The PRC Cybersecurity Law contains an overarching framework for regulating Internet security, protection of private and sensitive information, and safeguards for national cyberspace security and provisions for the continued government regulation of the Interne and content available in China. The PRC Cybersecurity Law emphasizes requirements for network products, services, operations and information security, as well as monitoring, early detection, emergency response and reporting. Due to the lack of further interpretations, the exact scope of “critical information infrastructure operator” remains unclear. On July 10, 2021, the CAC publicly issued the Cybersecurity Review Measures, or the Draft Measures, to collect public comments. The deadline for collecting comments is July 25, 2021. According to the Draft Measures, the scope of cybersecurity reviews is extended to data processing operators engaging in data processing activities that affect or may affect national security. The Draft Measures further requires that any operator applying for listing on a foreign exchange must go through cybersecurity review if it possesses personal information of more than one million users. According to the Draft Measures, a cybersecurity review assesses potential national security risk that may be brought about by any procurement, data processing, or overseas listing. The review focuses on several factors, including, among others, (1) the risk of theft, leakage, corruption, illegal use or export of any core or important data, or a large amount of personal information, and (2) the risk of any critical information infrastructure, core or important data, or a large amount of personal information being affected, controlled or maliciously exploited by a foreign government after a company is listed overseas. While the Draft Measures had been released for consultation

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purpose, there is still uncertainty regarding the Draft Measures as to its final content, its adoption timeline or effective date, its final interpretation and implementation, and other aspects.

If the Draft Measures is enacted as proposed, subject to any further interpretation of the CAC and other relevant authorities, we believe we may not be subject to the cybersecurity review by the CAC for this offering, as we are primarily engaged in the design and manufacturing of ICs or do not process any data in our business. However, there remains uncertainty as to how the Draft Measures will be interpreted or implemented and whether the PRC regulatory agencies, including the CAC, may adopt new laws, regulations, rules, or detailed implementation and interpretation related to the Draft Measures. We cannot assure you that PRC regulatory agencies, including the CAC, would take the same view as we do, and we cannot assure you that we can fully or timely comply with such legal or regulatory requirements. In the event that we are subject to any mandatory cybersecurity review and other specific actions required by the CAC, we face uncertainty as to whether any clearance or other required actions can be timely completed, or at all. Given such uncertainty, we may be further required to suspend our relevant business or face other penalties, which could materially and adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

The PRC government has significant influence over companies with China-based operations by enforcing existing rules and regulation, adopting new ones, or changing relevant industrial policies in a manner that may materially increase our compliance cost, change relevant industry landscape or otherwise cause significant changes to our operations in China, which could result in material and adverse changes in our operations and cause the value of our securities to significantly decline or be worthless.

We primarily conduct our business in China. The PRC government has significant influence over China-based operations of any company by allocating resources, providing preferential treatment to particular industries or companies, or imposing industry-wide policies on certain industries. The PRC government may also amend or enforce existing rules and regulation or adopt new ones, which could materially increase our compliance cost, change the relevant industry landscape, or cause significant changes to our business operations. In addition, the PRC regulatory system is based in part on government policies and internal guidance, some of which are not published on a timely basis or at all, and some of which may even have a retroactive effect. We may not be aware of all non-compliance incidents at all time, and may face regulatory investigation, fines and other penalties as a result. As a result of any changes in the government-mandated industrial policies, including the amendment to and/or enforcement of the related laws and regulations, companies with China-based operations, including us, and the industries in which we operate could face significant compliance and operational risks and uncertainties. For example, in July 2021, the PRC government released a broad set of reforms targeting private education companies providing after-school tutoring services and prohibiting foreign investments in institutions providing such after-school tutoring services. As a result, the market value of certain U.S. listed companies with China-based operations in the affected sectors declined substantially. The PRC government has also imposed severe restrictions over the operations of cryptocurrency business, which has drastically changed industry landscape in China, and as a result, due to the possible change of regulation, it may be illegal to acquire, own, hold, sell or use cryptocurrencies, participate in the blockchain business, or transfer or utilize cryptocurrency assets in China. In addition, the National Development and Reform Commission of China had considered and also may formally classify cryptocurrency mining operations as an industry to be eliminated. We have adopted a development strategy to expand our business and promote our products and solution offerings globally. If industry-wide regulations or policies are adopted in China in a way that significantly curtails or prohibits the research and development of our solution offerings and other aspects of our business, our operations in China will be materially and adversely affected, and we may have to cease our operations in China and relocate our offices and assets overseas, which may significantly disrupt our operations and adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

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The ADSs may be delisted under the Holding Foreign Companies Accountable Act if the PCAOB is unable to inspect auditors with presence in China, and the delisting of our ADSs, or the threat of their being delisted, may materially and adversely affect the value of your investment.

The Holding Foreign Companies Accountable Act, or the HFCA Act, was enacted on December 18, 2020. The HFCA Act states if the SEC determines that we have filed audit reports issued by a registered public accounting firm that has not been subject to inspection by the PCAOB for three consecutive years beginning in 2021, the SEC shall prohibit our shares or ADSs from being traded on a national securities exchange or in the over the counter trading market in the United States.

Our financial statements contained in this registration statement on Form F-1, of which the prospectus forms a part, have been audited by MaloneBailey, LLP, an independent registered public accounting firm that is headquartered in the United States with offices in Beijing and Shenzhen, China. MaloneBailey, LLP is a firm registered with the PCAOB, and is required by the United States laws to undergo regular inspections by the PCAOB to assess its compliance with the laws of the U.S. and professional standards. According to Article 177 of the PRC Securities Law (last amended in December 2019), no overseas securities regulator is allowed to directly conduct investigation or evidence collection activities in China. Accordingly, without the consent of the competent PRC securities regulators and relevant authorities, no organization or individual may provide the documents and materials relating to securities business activities to overseas parties. As a result, the audit working papers of our financial statements may not be inspected by the PCAOB without the approval of the PRC authorities, since the audit work was carried out by MaloneBailey, LLP with the collaboration of their China-based offices. Our ADSs may be delisted under the HFCA Act if the PCAOB is unable to inspect auditors with presence in China.

On March 24, 2021, the SEC adopted interim final rules relating to the implementation of certain disclosure and documentation requirements of the HFCA Act. We will be required to comply with these rules if the SEC identifies us as having a “non-inspection” year under a process to be subsequently established by the SEC. The SEC is assessing how to implement other requirements of the HFCA Act, including the listing and trading prohibition requirements described above. On June 22, 2021, the U.S. Senate passed a bill which, if passed by the U.S. House of Representatives and signed into law, would reduce the number of consecutive non-inspection years required for triggering the prohibitions under the HFCA Act from three years to two.

The SEC may propose additional rules or guidance that could impact us if our auditor is not subject to PCAOB inspection. For example, on August 6, 2020, the President’s Working Group on Financial Markets, or the PWG, issued the Report on Protecting United States Investors from Significant Risks from Chinese Companies to the then President of the United States. This report recommended the SEC implement five recommendations to address companies from jurisdictions that do not provide the PCAOB with adequate access to fulfil its statutory mandate. Some of the concepts of these recommendations were implemented with the enactment of the HFCA Act. However, some of the recommendations were more stringent than the HFCA Act. For example, if a company was not subject to PCAOB inspection, the report recommended that the transition period before a company would be delisted would end on January 1, 2022.

The SEC has announced that its staff is preparing a consolidated proposal for the rules regarding the implementation of the HFCA Act and to address the recommendations in the PWG report. It is unclear when the SEC will complete its rulemaking and when such rules will become effective and what, if any, of the PWG recommendations will be adopted. The implications of this possible regulation in addition the requirements of the HFCA Act are uncertain. Such uncertainty could cause the market price of the ADSs to be materially and adversely affected, and our securities could be delisted or prohibited from being traded “over-the-counter” earlier than would be required by the HFCA Act. If the ADSs are unable to be listed on another securities exchange by then, such a delisting would substantially impair your ability to sell or purchase the ADSs when you wish to do so, and the risk and uncertainty associated with a potential delisting would have a negative impact on the price of the ADSs.

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The PCAOB’s inability to conduct inspections in China prevents it from fully evaluating the audits and quality control procedures of our independent registered public accounting firm. As a result, we and our investors are deprived of the benefits of such PCAOB inspections. The inability of the PCAOB to conduct inspections of auditors with presence in China makes it more difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of our independent registered public accounting firm’s audit procedures or quality control procedures as compared to auditors outside of China that are subject to the PCAOB inspections, which could cause investors and potential investors in our ADSs to lose confidence in our audit procedures and reported financial information and the quality of our financial statements. If we fail to meet the new listing standards before the deadline specified thereunder due to factors beyond our control, we could face possible de-listing from the Nasdaq Stock Market, deregistration from the SEC and/or other risks, which may materially and adversely affect, or effectively terminate, the ADSs trading in the United States.

Changes in China’s economic, political or social conditions or government policies could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Substantially all of our revenues were derived in China, and most of our operations are conducted in China. Accordingly, our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations may be influenced to a significant degree by political, economic and social conditions in China generally and by continued economic growth in China as a whole. The Chinese economy differs from the economies of most developed countries in many respects, including the degree of government involvement, level of development, growth rate, control of foreign exchange and allocation of resources. Although the PRC government has implemented measures emphasizing the utilization of market forces for economic reform, the reduction of state ownership of productive assets and the establishment of improved corporate governance in business enterprises, a substantial portion of productive assets in China is still owned by the government. In addition, the Chinese government continues to play a significant role in regulating industry development by imposing industrial policies. The Chinese government also exercises significant control over China’s economic growth through strategically allocating resources, controlling the payment of foreign currency-denominated obligations, setting monetary policy and providing preferential treatment to particular industries or companies.

While the Chinese economy has experienced significant growth over the past decades, growth has been uneven, both geographically and among various sectors of the economy, and the rate of growth has been slowing since 2012. Any adverse changes in economic conditions in China, in the policies of the Chinese government or in the laws and regulations in China could have a material adverse effect on the overall economic growth of China. As a result, changes in economic conditions and government policies could adversely affect our business and results of operations, lead to reduction in demand for our services and adversely affect our competitive position.

Uncertainties in the interpretation and enforcement of PRC laws and regulations could limit the legal protections available to you and us.

The PRC legal system is a civil law system based on written statutes. Unlike the common law system, prior court decisions may be cited for reference but have limited precedential value. Our PRC legal system is evolving rapidly, but its current slate of laws may not be sufficient to cover all aspects of the economic activities in China, including such activities that relate to or have an impact on our business. Implementation and interpretations of laws, regulations and rules are not always undertaken in a uniform matter and enforcement of these laws, regulations and rules involves uncertainties.

From time to time, we may have to resort to administrative and court proceedings to enforce our legal rights. However, since PRC administrative and court authorities have significant discretion in interpreting and implementing statutory and contractual terms, it may be more difficult to evaluate the outcome of administrative and court proceedings and the level of protection we enjoy than in more developed legal systems. Furthermore, the PRC legal system is based in part on government policies and internal rules (some of which are not published

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in a timely manner or at all) that may have a retroactive effect. As a result, we may not always be aware of any potential violation of these policies and rules until sometime after the violation. Such uncertainties, including unpredictability towards the scope and effect of our contractual, property (including intellectual property) and procedural rights, and any failure to respond to changes in the regulatory environment in China could materially and adversely affect our business and impede our ability to continue our operations.

A severe or prolonged downturn in China’s economy could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

The global macroeconomic environment is facing challenges, including the end of quantitative easing by the U.S. Federal Reserve, the economic slowdown in the Eurozone since 2014 and the uncertain impact of “Brexit.” The growth of China’s economy has slowed down since 2012 and such slowdown may continue. The outbreak of coronavirus COVID-19 in China has resulted in a severe disruption of social and economic activities in China. See “—Risks Relating to Our Operations—The ongoing global coronavirus COVID-19 outbreak has caused significant disruptions in our business, which we expect will materially and adversely affect our results of operations and financial condition.” In addition, there is considerable uncertainty over the long-term effects of the expansionary monetary and fiscal policies adopted by the central banks and financial authorities of some of the world’s leading economies, including the United States and China. There have also been concerns on the relationship between China and other countries, including the surrounding Asian countries, which may potentially result in foreign investors exiting the China market and other economic effects. Economic conditions in China are sensitive to global economic conditions, as well as changes in domestic economic and political policies and the expected or perceived overall economic growth rate in China. For example, sustained tension between the United States and China over trade policies could significantly undermine the stability of the global and China’s economy. See “—Risks Relating to Our Operations—Our export of products to foreign countries such as the United States, may be subject to high tariff rates resulting from protectionism trade policies, and as a result, our future sales volumes, profitability and results of operations will be materially and adversely affected..” Any severe or prolonged slowdown or instability in the global or China’s economy may materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We may be adversely affected by inflation or labor shortage in China.

In recent years, the PRC economy has experienced periods of rapid expansion and highly fluctuating rates of inflation. During the past ten years, the rate of inflation in China has been as high as 5.9% and as low as -0.7%. While inflation has slowed in recent years with a moderate rate of 1.6% recorded in 2017, it is uncertain when the general price level may increase or decrease sharply in the future. Moreover, the significant economic growth in China has resulted in a general increase in labor costs and shortage of low-cost labor. Inflation may cause our production cost to continue to increase. If we are unable to pass on the increase in production cost to our customers, we may suffer a decrease in profitability and a loss of customers, and our results of operations could be materially and adversely affected.

Increases in labor costs and enforcement of stricter labor laws and regulations in China and our additional payments of statutory employee benefits may adversely affect our business and profitability.

The average wage in China has increased in recent years and is expected to continue to grow. The average wage level for our employees has also increased in recent years. We expect that our labor costs, including wages and employee benefits, will continue to increase. Unless we are able to pass on these increased labor costs to our customers, our profitability and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected. In addition, we have been subject to stricter regulatory requirements in terms of entering into labor contracts with our employees and paying various statutory employee benefits, including pensions, housing funds, medical insurance, work-related injury insurance, unemployment insurance and maternity insurance to designated government agencies for the benefit of our employees. Pursuant to the PRC Labor Contract Law and its implementation rules, employers are subject to stricter requirements in terms of signing labor contracts, minimum wages, paying

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remuneration, determining the term of employee’s probation and unilaterally terminating labor contracts. In the event that we decide to terminate some of our employees or otherwise change our employment or labor practices, the PRC Labor Contract Law and its implementation rules may limit our ability to effect those changes in a desirable or cost-effective manner, which could adversely affect our business and results of operations.

Pursuant to PRC laws and regulations, companies registered and operating in China are required to apply for social insurance registration and housing fund deposit registration within 30 days of their establishment and to pay for their employees different social insurance including pension insurance, medical insurance, work-related injury insurance, unemployment insurance and maternity insurance to the extent required by law. We have not fully paid social insurance and housing provident funds for our employees due to inconsistency in implementation or interpretation of the relevant PRC laws and regulations among government authorities in China. Recently, as the PRC government enhanced its enforcement measures relating to social insurance collection, we may be required to make up the contributions for our employees, and may be further subjected to late fees payment and administrative fines, which may adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations. As the interpretation and implementation of labor-related laws and regulations are still evolving, we cannot assure you that our current employment practices do not and will not violate labor-related laws and regulations in China, which may subject us to labor disputes or government investigations. In addition, we may incur additional expenses in order to comply with such laws and regulations, which may adversely affect our business and profitability.

Fluctuations in exchange rates could affect our results of operations and reduce the value of your investment.

The value of the Renminbi against the U.S. dollar and other currencies is affected by changes in China’s political and economic conditions and China’s foreign exchange policies, among other things. In 2005, the PRC government changed its decades-old policy of pegging the value of the Renminbi to the U.S. dollar, and the Renminbi appreciated more than 20% against the U.S. dollar over the following three years. Between July 2008 and June 2010, this appreciation halted and the exchange rate between Renminbi and the U.S. dollar remained within a narrow band. Since June 2010, Renminbi has fluctuated against the U.S. dollar, at times significantly and unpredictably. On November 30, 2015, the Executive Board of IMF completed the regular five-year review of the basket of currencies that make up the Special Drawing Right, or the SDR, and decided that with effect from October 1, 2016, Renminbi is determined to be a freely usable currency and will be included in the SDR basket as a fifth currency, along with the U.S. dollar, the Euro, the Japanese yen and the British pound. In the fourth quarter of 2016, the Renminbi has depreciated significantly against the backdrop of a surging U.S. dollar and persistent capital outflows from China. This depreciation halted in 2017, and the RMB appreciated approximately 7% against the U.S. dollar during this one-year period. In 2018, a new round of RMB depreciation emerged under the influence of a strong U.S. dollar and the trade friction between China and the United States. With the development of the foreign exchange market and progress towards interest rate liberalization and Renminbi internationalization, the PRC government may in the future announce further changes to the exchange rate system and we cannot assure you that Renminbi will not appreciate or depreciate significantly in value against the U.S. dollar in the future. It is difficult to predict how market forces or PRC or U.S. government policy may impact the exchange rate between Renminbi and the U.S. dollar in the future.

Significant revaluation of the Renminbi may have a material adverse effect on your investment. For example, to the extent that we need to convert U.S. dollars we receive from this offering into Renminbi for our operations, appreciation of the Renminbi against the U.S. dollar would have an adverse effect on the Renminbi amount we would receive from the conversion. Conversely, if we decide to convert our Renminbi into U.S. dollars for the purpose of making payments for dividends on our ordinary shares or the ADSs or for other business purposes, appreciation of the U.S. dollar against the Renminbi would have a negative effect on the U.S. dollar amount available to us.

Very limited hedging options are available in China to reduce our exposure to exchange rate fluctuations. To date, we have not entered into any material hedging transactions in an effort to reduce our exposure to foreign

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currency exchange risk. While we may decide to enter into hedging transactions in the future, the availability and effectiveness of these hedges may be limited and we may not be able to adequately hedge our exposure or at all. In addition, our currency exchange losses may be magnified by PRC exchange control regulations that restrict our ability to convert Renminbi into foreign currency.

We may be subject to enterprise income tax on our worldwide income if our company or any of our subsidiaries were considered a PRC “resident enterprise” under the PRC Enterprise Income Tax Law.

Under the PRC Enterprise Income Tax Law, or the EIT Law, and its implementation rules, enterprises established outside of China with “de facto management bodies” within China are considered a “resident enterprise” and will be subject to enterprise income tax, or EIT, at a rate of 25% on their worldwide income. The implementation rules under EIT define the term “de facto management bodies” as “establishments that carry out substantial and overall management and control over the production, operation, personnel, accounting and properties of an enterprise.” The State Administration of Taxation of the PRC, or SAT promulgated the Notice Regarding the Determination of Chinese-Controlled Offshore Incorporated Enterprises as PRC Tax Resident Enterprises on the Basis of De Facto Management Bodies, or Circular 82, on April 22, 2009, which provides certain specific criteria for determining whether the “de facto management body” of a Chinese-controlled offshore incorporated enterprise is located in China. On July 27, 2011, SAT issued the Measures for Administration of Income Tax of Chinese Controlled Resident Enterprises Incorporated Overseas (Trial), or Circular 45, to supplement Circular 82 and other tax laws and regulations. Circular 45 clarifies certain issues relating to resident status determination. Although Circular 82 and Circular 45 apply only to offshore enterprises controlled by PRC enterprises or PRC group companies and not those controlled by PRC individuals or foreigners, the determining criteria set forth in Circular 82 and Circular 45 may reflect the SAT’s general position on how the “de facto management body” test should be applied in determining the tax resident status of offshore enterprises, regardless of whether they are controlled by PRC enterprises or individuals or foreign enterprises. A substantial majority of our senior management team is located in China. If our company or any of our subsidiaries were considered to be a PRC “resident enterprise,” we would be subject to a EIT at a rate of 25% on our worldwide income.

Dividends payable to our foreign investors and gains on the sale of our ADSs by our foreign investors may become subject to PRC tax.

Under the EIT Law and its implementation regulations issued by the State Council, a 10% PRC withholding tax is applicable to dividends payable to investors that are non-resident enterprises, which do not have an establishment or place of business in China or which have such establishment or place of business but the dividends are not effectively connected with such establishment or place of business, to the extent such dividends are derived from sources within China. Similarly, any gain realized on the transfer of the ADSs by such investors is also subject to PRC tax at a current rate of 10%, subject to any reduction or exemption set forth in applicable tax treaties or under applicable tax arrangements between jurisdictions, if such gain is regarded as income derived from sources within China. If we are deemed a PRC resident enterprise, dividends paid on the ADSs, and any gain realized from the transfer of the ADSs, would be treated as income derived from sources within China and would as a result be subject to PRC taxation. Furthermore, if we are deemed a PRC resident enterprise, dividends payable to individual investors who are non-PRC residents and any gain realized on the transfer of the ADSs by such investors may be subject to PRC tax at a current rate of 20%, subject to any reduction or exemption set forth in applicable tax treaties or under applicable tax arrangements between jurisdictions. If we or any of our subsidiaries established outside China are considered a PRC resident enterprise, it is unclear whether holders of the ADSs would be able to claim the benefit of income tax treaties or agreements entered into between China and other countries or areas. If dividends payable to our non-PRC investors, or gains from the transfer of the ADSs by such investors, are deemed as income derived from sources within China and thus are subject to PRC tax, the value of your investment in the ADSs may decline significantly.

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PRC regulations relating to investments in offshore companies by PRC residents may subject our PRC-resident beneficial owners or our PRC subsidiaries to liability or penalties, limit our ability to inject capital into our PRC subsidiaries or limit our PRC subsidiaries’ ability to increase their registered capital or distribute profits.

In July 2014, the State Administration of Foreign Exchange of the PRC, or SAFE, promulgated the Circular on Relevant Issues Concerning Foreign Exchange Control on Domestic Residents’ Offshore Investment and Financing and Roundtrip Investment through Special Purpose Vehicles, or SAFE Circular 37, which replaces the previous SAFE Circular 75. SAFE Circular 37 requires PRC residents, including PRC individuals and PRC corporate entities, to register with SAFE or its local branches in connection with their direct or indirect offshore investment activities. SAFE Circular 37 is applicable to our shareholders who are PRC residents and may be applicable to any offshore acquisitions that we may make in the future.

Under SAFE Circular 37, PRC residents who make, or have prior to the implementation of SAFE Circular 37 made, direct or indirect investments in offshore special purpose vehicles, or SPVs, are required to register such investments with SAFE or its local branches. In addition, any PRC resident who is a direct or indirect shareholder of an SPV, is required to update its registration with the local branch of SAFE with respect to that SPV, to reflect any material change. Moreover, any subsidiary of such SPV in China is required to urge the PRC resident shareholders to update their registration with the local branch of SAFE to reflect any material change. If any PRC resident shareholder of such SPV fails to make the required registration or to update the registration, the subsidiary of such SPV in China may be prohibited from distributing its profits or the proceeds from any capital reduction, share transfer or liquidation to the SPV, and the SPV may also be prohibited from making additional capital contributions into its subsidiaries in China. In February 2015, SAFE promulgated a Notice on Further Simplifying and Improving Foreign Exchange Administration Policy on Direct Investment, or SAFE Notice 13. Under SAFE Notice 13, applications for foreign exchange registration of inbound foreign direct investments and outbound direct investments, including those required under SAFE Circular 37, must be filed with qualified banks instead of SAFE. Qualified banks should examine the applications and accept registrations under the supervision of SAFE. We have used our best efforts to notify PRC residents or entities who directly or indirectly hold shares in our Cayman Islands holding company and who are known to us as being PRC residents to complete the foreign exchange registrations. However, we may not be informed of the identities of all the PRC residents or entities holding direct or indirect interest in our company, nor can we compel our beneficial owners to comply with SAFE registration requirements. We cannot assure you that all other shareholders or beneficial owners of ours who are PRC residents or entities have complied with, and will in the future make, obtain or update any applicable registrations or approvals required by, SAFE regulations. Failure by such shareholders or beneficial owners to comply with SAFE regulations, or failure by us to amend the foreign exchange registrations of our PRC subsidiaries, could subject us to fines or legal sanctions, restrict our overseas or cross-border investment activities, limit our PRC subsidiaries’ ability to make distributions or pay dividends to us or affect our ownership structure, which could adversely affect our business and prospects.

Furthermore, as these foreign exchange and outbound investment related regulations are relatively new and their interpretation and implementation has been constantly evolving, it is unclear how these regulations, and any future regulation concerning offshore or cross-border investments and transactions, will be interpreted, amended and implemented by the relevant government authorities. For example, we may be subject to a more stringent review and approval process with respect to our foreign exchange activities, such as remittance of dividends and foreign-currency-denominated borrowings, which may adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations. We cannot assure you that we have complied or will be able to comply with all applicable foreign exchange and outbound investment related regulations. In addition, if we decide to acquire a PRC domestic company, we cannot assure you that we or the owners of such company, as the case may be, will be able to obtain the necessary approvals or complete the necessary filings and registrations required by the foreign exchange regulations. This may restrict our ability to implement our acquisition strategy and could adversely affect our business and prospects.

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PRC regulation of loans to and direct investment in PRC entities by offshore holding companies and governmental control of currency conversion may delay or prevent us from using the proceeds of this offering to make loans or additional capital contributions to our PRC subsidiaries and affiliated entities.

We are an offshore holding company with some of our operations conducted in China. We may make loans to our PRC subsidiaries subject to the approval, registration, and filing with governmental authorities and limitation of amount, or we may make additional capital contributions to our wholly foreign-owned subsidiaries in China. Any loans to our wholly foreign-owned subsidiaries in China, which are treated as foreign-invested enterprises under PRC law, are subject to foreign exchange loan registrations with the National Development and Reform Commission, or the NDRC, and SAFE or its local branches. In addition, a foreign invested enterprise shall use its capital pursuant to the principle of authenticity and self-use within its business scope. The capital of a foreign invested enterprise shall not be used for the following purposes: (1) directly or indirectly used for payment beyond the business scope of the enterprises or the payment prohibited by relevant laws and regulations; (2) directly or indirectly used for investment in securities or investments other than banks’ principal-secured products unless otherwise provided by relevant laws and regulations; (3) the granting of loans to non-affiliated enterprises, except where it is expressly permitted in the business license; and (4) paying the expenses related to the purchase of real estate that is not for self-use (except for the foreign-invested real estate enterprises).

In light of the various requirements imposed by PRC regulations on loans to and direct investment in PRC entities by offshore holding companies, we cannot assure you that we will be able to complete the necessary government registrations or obtain the necessary government approvals or filings on a timely basis, if at all, with respect to future loans by us to our PRC subsidiaries or with respect to future capital contributions by us to our PRC subsidiaries. If we fail to complete such registrations or obtain such approvals, our ability to use the proceeds from this offering and to capitalize or otherwise fund our PRC operations may be negatively affected, which could adversely affect our liquidity and our ability to fund and expand our business.

We and our shareholders face uncertainties with respect to indirect transfers of equity interests in PRC resident enterprises or other assets attributed to a Chinese establishment of a non-Chinese company, or immovable properties located in China owned by non-Chinese companies.

In February 2015, SAT issued a Public Notice Regarding Certain Corporate Income Tax Matters on Indirect Transfer of Properties by Non-Tax Resident Enterprises, or SAT Public Notice 7. SAT Public Notice 7 extends its tax jurisdiction to transactions involving transfer of other taxable assets through offshore transfer of a foreign intermediate holding company. In addition, SAT Public Notice 7 provides clear criteria for assessment of reasonable commercial purposes and has introduced safe harbors for internal group restructurings and the purchase and sale of equity through a public securities market. SAT Public Notice 7 also brings challenges to both foreign transferor and transferee (or other person who is obligated to pay for the transfer) of taxable assets. In October 2017, SAT issued the Announcement of the State Administration of Taxation on Issues Concerning the Withholding of Non-resident Enterprise Income Tax at Source, or SAT Bulletin 37, which came into effect on December 1, 2017. The SAT Bulletin 37 further clarifies the practice and procedure of the withholding of non-resident EIT. Where a non-resident enterprise transfers taxable assets indirectly by disposing of the equity interests of an overseas holding company, which is an indirect transfer, the non-resident enterprise as either transferor or transferee, or the PRC entity that directly owns the taxable assets, may report such Indirect Transfer to the relevant tax authority. Using a “substance over form” principle, the PRC tax authority may disregard the existence of the overseas holding company if it lacks a reasonable commercial purpose and was established for the purpose of reducing, avoiding or deferring PRC tax. As a result, gains derived from such indirect transfer other than transfer of shares acquired and sold on public markets may be subject to EIT, and the transferee or other person who is obligated to pay for the transfer is obligated to withhold the applicable taxes, currently at a rate of 10%. Both the transferor and the transferee may be subject to penalties under PRC tax laws if the transferee fails to withhold the taxes and the transferor fails to pay the taxes. We face uncertainties as to the reporting and other implications of certain past and future transactions that involve PRC taxable assets, such as offshore restructuring, sale of the shares in our offshore subsidiaries and investments. Our company may be

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subject to filing obligations or taxed if our company is transferor in such transactions, and may be subject to withholding obligations if our company is transferee in such transactions, under SAT Public Notice 7 or SAT Bulletin 37, or both.

We are subject to PRC restrictions on currency exchange.

Some of our revenues and expenses are denominated in Renminbi. Renminbi is currently convertible under the “current account,” which includes dividends, trade and service-related foreign exchange transactions, but not under the “capital account,” which includes foreign direct investment and loans, including loans we may secure from our onshore subsidiaries. Currently, certain of our PRC subsidiaries may purchase foreign currency for settlement of “current account transactions,” including payment of dividends to us, without the approval of the SAFE by complying with certain procedural requirements. However, the relevant PRC governmental authorities may limit or eliminate our ability to purchase foreign currencies in the future for current account transactions. Foreign exchange transactions under the capital account remain subject to limitations and require approvals from, or registration with, SAFE and other relevant PRC governmental authorities. Since a part of our future net income and cash flow will be denominated in Renminbi, any existing and future restrictions on currency exchange may limit our ability to utilize cash generated in Renminbi to fund our business activities outside of China or pay dividends in foreign currencies to our shareholders, including holders of the ADSs, and may limit our ability to obtain foreign currency through debt or equity financing for our subsidiaries.

The M&A Rules and certain other PRC regulations establish complex procedures for some acquisitions of Chinese companies by foreign investors, which could make it more difficult for us to pursue growth through acquisitions in China.

The Regulations on Mergers and Acquisitions of Domestic Companies by Foreign Investors, or the M&A Rules, adopted by six PRC regulatory agencies in August 2006 and amended in September 2009, and some other regulations and rules concerning mergers and acquisitions established additional procedures and requirements that could make merger and acquisition activities by foreign investors more time consuming and complex, including requirements in some instances that shall obtained an approval from the Ministry of Commerce, or MOFCOM, in advance of any change-of-control transaction in which a foreign investor takes control of a PRC domestic enterprise. Moreover, the Anti-Monopoly Law requires that MOFCOM shall be notified in advance of any concentration of undertaking if certain thresholds are triggered. In addition, the security review rules issued by MOFCOM that became effective in September 2011 specify that mergers and acquisitions by foreign investors that raise “national defense and security” concerns and mergers and acquisitions through which foreign investors may acquire de facto control over domestic enterprises that raise “national security” concerns are subject to strict review by MOFCOM, and the rules prohibit any activities attempting to bypass a security review, including by structuring the transaction through a proxy or contractual control arrangement. In the future, we may grow our business by acquiring complementary businesses. Complying with the requirements of the above-mentioned regulations and other relevant rules to complete such transactions could be time consuming, and any required approval processes, including obtaining approval from MOFCOM or its local counterparts may delay or inhibit our ability to complete such transactions, which could affect our ability to expand our business or maintain our market share.

We face regulatory uncertainties in China that could restrict our ability to grant share incentive awards to our employees or consultants who are PRC citizens.

Pursuant to the Notices on Issues concerning the Foreign Exchange Administration for Domestic Individuals Participating in a Stock Incentive Plan of an Overseas Publicly-Listed Company issued by SAFE on February 15, 2012, or Circular 7, a qualified PRC agent (which could be the PRC subsidiary of the overseas-listed company) is required to file, on behalf of “domestic individuals” (both PRC residents and non-PRC residents who reside in China for a continuous period of not less than one year, excluding the foreign diplomatic personnel and representatives of international organizations) who are granted shares or share options by the overseas-listed

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company according to its share incentive plan, an application with SAFE to conduct SAFE registration with respect to such share incentive plan, and obtain approval for an annual allowance with respect to the purchase of foreign exchange in connection with the share purchase or share option exercise. Such PRC individuals’ foreign exchange income received from the sale of shares and dividends distributed by the overseas listed company and any other income shall be fully remitted into a collective foreign currency account in China, which is opened and managed by the PRC domestic agent before distribution to such individuals. In addition, such domestic individuals must also retain an overseas entrusted institution to handle matters in connection with their exercise of share options and their purchase and sale of shares. The PRC domestic agent also needs to update registration with SAFE within three months after the overseas-listed company materially changes its share incentive plan or make any new share incentive plans.

We may adopt a share incentive plan and may grant options after its adoption. When we do, from time to time, we need to apply for or update our registration with SAFE or its local branches on behalf of our employees or consultants who receive options or other equity-based incentive grants under our share incentive plan or material changes in our share incentive plan. However, we may not always be able to make applications or update our registration on behalf of our employees or consultants who hold any type of share incentive awards in compliance with Circular 7, nor can we ensure you that such applications or update of registration will be successful. If we or the participants of our share incentive plan who are PRC citizens fail to comply with Circular 7, we and/or such participants of our share incentive plan may be subject to fines and legal sanctions, there may be additional restrictions on the ability of such participants to exercise their share options or remit proceeds gained from sale of their shares into China, and we may be prevented from further granting share incentive awards under our share incentive plan to our employees or consultants who are PRC citizens.

It may be difficult for overseas regulators to conduct investigation or collect evidence within China.

Shareholder claims or regulatory investigation that are common in the United States generally are difficult to pursue as a matter of law or practicality in China. For example, in China, there are significant legal and other obstacles to providing information needed for regulatory investigations or litigations initiated outside China. Although the authorities in China may establish a regulatory cooperation mechanism with the securities regulatory authorities of another country or region to implement cross-border supervision and administration, such cooperation with the securities regulatory authorities in the Unities States may not be efficient in the absence of mutual and practical cooperation mechanism. Furthermore, according to Article 177 of the PRC Securities Law, which became effective in March 2020, no overseas securities regulator is allowed to directly conduct investigation or evidence collection activities within the PRC territory. While detailed interpretation of or implementation rules under Article 177 have yet to be promulgated, the inability for an overseas securities regulator to directly conduct investigation or evidence collection activities within China may further increase the difficulties you face in protecting your interests. See also “—Risks Relating to Our Corporate Governance—You may face difficulties in protecting your interests, and your ability to protect your rights through U.S. courts may be limited, because we are incorporated under Cayman Islands law and conduct our operations primarily in emerging markets.”

Risks Relating to Our Corporate Governance

If the custodians or authorized users of our controlling non-tangible assets, including chops and seals, fail to fulfill their responsibilities, or misappropriate or misuse these assets, our business and operations may be materially and adversely affected.

Under PRC law, legal documents for corporate transactions, including agreements and contracts such as the leases and sales contracts that our business relies on, are executed using the chop or seal of the signing entity or with the signature of a legal representative whose designation is registered and filed with the relevant local branch of the market supervision administration.

In order to maintain the physical security of our chops and the chops of our PRC entities, we generally store these items in secured locations accessible only by the authorized personnel of each of our PRC subsidiary and

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consolidated entities. Although we monitor such authorized personnel, there is no assurance such procedures will prevent all instances of abuse or negligence. Accordingly, if any of our authorized personnel misuse or misappropriate our corporate chops or seals, we could encounter difficulties in maintaining control over the relevant entities and experience significant disruption to our operations. If a designated legal representative obtains control of the chops in an effort to obtain control over any of our PRC subsidiary or consolidated entities, we, our PRC subsidiaries or consolidated entities would need to pass a new shareholder or board resolution to designate a new legal representative and we would need to take legal action to seek the return of the chops, apply for new chops with the relevant authorities, or otherwise seek legal redress for the violation of the representative’s fiduciary duties to us, which could involve significant time and resources and divert management attention away from our regular business. In addition, the affected entity may not be able to recover corporate assets that are sold or transferred out of our control in the event of such a misappropriation if a transferee relies on the apparent authority of the representative and acts in good faith.

Our post-offering memorandum and articles of association contain anti-takeover provisions that could have a material adverse effect on the rights of holders of our ordinary shares and ADSs.

We will adopt an amended and restated memorandum and articles of association that will become effective immediately prior to the completion of this offering. Our new memorandum and articles of association will contain certain provisions that limit the ability of others to acquire control of our company or cause us to engage in change-of-control transactions, including a provision that grants authority to our board of directors to establish and issue from time to time one or more series of preferred shares without action by our shareholders and to determine, with respect to any series of preferred shares, the terms and rights of that series. These provisions could have the effect of depriving our shareholders and ADSs holders of the opportunity to sell their shares or ADSs at a premium over the prevailing market price by discouraging third parties from seeking to obtain control of our company in a tender offer or similar transactions.

The dual-class structure of our ordinary shares may adversely affect the trading market for our ADSs.

Certain shareholder advisory firms have announced changes to their eligibility criteria for inclusion of shares of public companies on certain indices, including the S&P 500, to exclude companies with multiple classes of shares and companies whose public shareholders hold no more than 5% of total voting power from being added to such indices. In addition, several shareholder advisory firms have announced their opposition to the use of multiple class structures. As a result, the dual-class structure of our ordinary shares may prevent the inclusion of our ADSs representing Class A ordinary shares in such indices and may cause some shareholder advisory firms to publish negative commentary about our corporate governance practices or otherwise seek to cause us to change our capital structure. Any such exclusion from indices could result in a less active trading market for our ADSs. Any negative actions or publications by shareholder advisory firms could also adversely affect the value of our ADSs.

Our amended and restated memorandum and articles of association contain anti-takeover provisions that could have a material adverse effect on the rights of holders of our Class A ordinary shares and ADSs.

We [have] adopted an amended and restated memorandum and articles of association that will become effective immediately prior to completion of this offering. Our new memorandum and articles of association contain provisions to limit the ability of others to acquire control of our company or cause us to engage in change-of-control transactions, including a provision that entitles each Class B ordinary share to 15 votes in respect of all matters subject to a shareholders’ vote. These provisions could have the effect of depriving our shareholders of an opportunity to sell their shares at a premium over prevailing market prices by discouraging third parties form seeking to obtain control of our company in a tender offer or similar transaction. Although we expect to issue all of our authorized Class B ordinary shares upon the completion of this offering, if any of such Class B ordinary shares are converted into Class A ordinary shares or canceled for any reasons, our board of directors will have the authority without further action by our shareholders to issue additional Class B ordinary

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shares, which will be dilutive to our Class A ordinary shareholders. In addition, our board of directors has the authority, without further action by our shareholders, to issue preferred shares in one or more series and to fix their designations, powers, preferences, privileges, and relative participating, optional or special rights and the qualifications, limitations or restrictions, including dividend rights, conversion rights, voting rights, terms of redemption and liquidation preferences, any or all of which may be greater than the rights associated with our Class A ordinary shares, in the form of ADS or otherwise. We could issue preferred shares quickly with terms calculated to delay or prevent a change in control of our company or make removal of management more difficult. If our board of directors decides to issue preferred shares, the price of our ADSs may fall and the voting and other rights of the holders of our Class A ordinary shares and ADSs may be materially and adversely affected.

You may face difficulties in protecting your interests, and your ability to protect your rights through U.S. courts may be limited, because we are incorporated under Cayman Islands law and conduct our operations primarily in emerging markets.

We are an exempted company incorporated under the laws of the Cayman Islands. Our corporate affairs are governed by our memorandum and articles of association, the Companies Act of the Cayman Islands, as amended and the common law of the Cayman Islands. The rights of shareholders to take action against our directors, actions by our minority shareholders and the fiduciary duties of our directors to us under the Cayman Islands law are to a large extent governed by the common law of the Cayman Islands. The common law of the Cayman Islands is derived in part from comparatively limited judicial precedent in the Cayman Islands as well as from the common law of England, the decisions of whose courts are of persuasive authority, but are not binding, on a court in the Cayman Islands. The rights of our shareholders and the fiduciary duties of our directors under Cayman Islands law are not as clearly established as they would be under statutes or judicial precedent in some jurisdictions in the United States. In particular, the Cayman Islands have a less developed body of securities laws than the United States. In addition, Cayman Islands companies may not have standing to initiate a shareholder derivative action in a federal court of the United States.

Shareholders of Cayman Islands exempted companies like us have no general rights under Cayman Islands law to inspect corporate records (other than the memorandum and articles of association, our register of mortgages and charges and special resolutions of our shareholders) or to obtain copies of lists of shareholders of these companies. Our directors have discretion under our articles of association to determine whether or not, and under what conditions, our corporate records may be inspected by our shareholders, but are not obligated to make them available to our shareholders. This may make it more difficult for you to obtain the information needed to establish any facts necessary for a shareholder motion or to solicit proxies from other shareholders in connection with a proxy contest.

Certain corporate governance practices in the Cayman Islands, which is our home country, differ significantly from requirements for companies incorporated in other jurisdictions such as the United States. We may follow the home country practice for certain corporate governance practices after the closing of this offering which may differ from the requirements of [the Nasdaq Global Market]. If we choose to follow the home country practice, our shareholders may be afforded fewer protection than they otherwise would under rules and regulations applicable to U.S. domestic issuers.

In addition, we conduct substantially all of our business operations in emerging markets, including China, and substantially all of our directors and senior management are based in China. The SEC, U.S. Department of Justice, or the DOJ, and other authorities often have substantial difficulties in bringing and enforcing actions against non-U.S. companies and non-U.S. persons, including company directors and officers, in certain emerging markets, including China. Additionally, our public shareholders may have limited rights and few practical remedies in emerging markets where we operate, as shareholder claims that are common in the United States, including class action based on securities law and fraud claims, generally are difficult or impossible to pursue as a matter of law or practicality in many emerging markets, including China. For example, in China, there are significant legal and other obstacles for the SEC, the DOJ and other U.S. authorities to obtaining information

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needed for shareholder investigations or litigation. Although the competent authorities in China may establish a regulatory cooperation mechanism with the securities regulatory authorities of another country or region to implement cross-border supervision and administration, the regulatory cooperation with the securities regulatory authorities in the United States has not been efficient in the absence of a mutual and practical cooperation mechanism. According to Article 177 of the PRC Securities Law which became effective in March 2020, no foreign securities regulator is allowed to directly conduct investigation or evidence collection activities within the territory of China. Accordingly, without the consent of the competent PRC securities regulators and relevant authorities, no organization or individual may provide the documents and materials relating to securities business activities to foreign securities regulators.

As a result of all of the above, our public shareholders may have more difficulty in protecting their interests in the face of actions taken by management, members of the board of directors or controlling shareholders than they would as public shareholders of a company incorporated in the United States. For a discussion of significant differences between the provisions of the Companies Act of the Cayman Islands and the laws applicable to companies incorporated in the United States and their shareholders, see “Description of Share Capital—Differences in Corporate Law.”

Certain judgments obtained against us by our shareholders may not be enforceable.

We are a Cayman Islands exempted company and all of our assets are located outside the United States. All of our current operations are conducted in China. In addition, all of our current directors and officers are nationals and residents of countries other than the United States. A substantial portion of the assets of these persons are located outside the United States. As a result, it may be difficult or impossible for you to bring an action against us or against these individuals in the United States in the event that you believe that your rights have been infringed under the U.S. federal securities laws or otherwise. Even if you are successful in bringing an action of this kind, the laws of the Cayman Islands and of China may render you unable to enforce a judgment against our assets or the assets of our directors and officers. For more information regarding the relevant laws of the Cayman Islands and China, see “Enforceability of Civil Liabilities.”

We are an emerging growth company within the meaning of the Securities Act and may take advantage of certain reduced reporting requirements.

We are an “emerging growth company,” as defined in the JOBS Act, and we may take advantage of certain exemptions from requirements applicable to other public companies that are not emerging growth companies including, most significantly, not being required to comply with the auditor attestation requirements of Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 for so long as we are an emerging growth company until the fifth anniversary from the date of our initial listing.

The JOBS Act also provides that an emerging growth company does not need to comply with any new or revised financial accounting standards until such date that a private company is otherwise required to comply with such new or revised accounting standards. We intend to avail ourselves of the extended transition period.

We are a foreign private issuer within the meaning of the rules under the Exchange Act, and as such we are exempt from certain provisions applicable to United States domestic public companies.

Because we are a foreign private issuer under the Exchange Act, we are exempt from certain provisions of the securities laws and regulations in the United States that apply to U.S. domestic issuers, including:

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We will be required to file an annual report on Form 20-F within four months of the end of each fiscal year. In addition, we intend to publish our results on a quarterly basis through press releases, distributed pursuant to the rules and regulations of [the Nasdaq Global Market]. Press releases relating to financial results and material events will also be furnished to the SEC on Form 6-K. However, the information we are required to file with or furnish to the SEC will be less extensive and less timely than that required to be filed with the SEC by U.S. domestic issuers. As a result, you may not be afforded the same protections or information that would be made available to you were you investing in a U.S. domestic issuer.

As an exempted company incorporated in the Cayman Islands, we are permitted to adopt certain home country practices in relation to corporate governance matters that differ significantly from the requirements of Nasdaq Stock Market Rules. These practices may afford fewer protection to shareholders than they would enjoy if we complied fully with the Nasdaq Stock Market Rules.

As a Cayman Islands exempted company listed on [the Nasdaq Global Market], we are subject to the Nasdaq Stock Market Rules. However, the Nasdaq Stock Market Rules permit a foreign private issuer like us to follow the corporate governance practices of its home country. Certain corporate governance practices in the Cayman Islands, which is our home country, may differ significantly from [the Nasdaq Stock Market Rules. For instance, we are not required to: (1) have a majority of the board be independent; (2) have a compensation committee or a nominating and corporate governance committee consisting entirely of independent directors; or (3) have regularly scheduled executive sessions with only independent directors each year. We intend to rely on some of these exemptions. As a result, you may not be provided with the benefits of certain corporate governance requirements of [the Nasdaq Global Market]. We may also follow the home country practice for certain corporate governance practices after the closing of this offering which may differ from the requirements of [the Nasdaq Global Market]. If we choose to follow the home country practice, our shareholders may be afforded fewer protection than they would otherwise enjoy under the Nasdaq Stock Market Rules applicable to U.S. domestic issuers.

Risks Relating to the ADSs and this Offering

The approval of the CSRC, the CAC and other compliance procedures may be required in connection with this offering, and, if required, we cannot predict whether we will be able to obtain such approval.

The M&A Rules requires an overseas special purpose vehicle that are controlled by PRC companies or individuals formed for the purpose of seeking a public listing on an overseas stock exchange through acquisitions of PRC domestic companies using shares of such special purpose vehicle or held by its shareholders as considerations to obtain the approval of the CSRC, prior to the listing and trading of such special purpose vehicle’s securities on an overseas stock exchange. However, the application of the M&A Rules remains unclear. If CSRC approval is required, it is uncertain whether it would be possible for us to obtain the approval. Any failure to obtain or delay in obtaining CSRC approval for this offering would subject us to sanctions imposed by the CSRC and other PRC regulators.

While the application of the M&A Rules remains unclear, we believe, that the CSRC approval is not required in the context of this offering, because (1) the CSRC currently has not issued any definitive rule or interpretation concerning whether offerings under the Prospectus are subject to the M&A Rules; and (2) the PRC Subsidiaries were not established by merger with or acquisition of PRC domestic companies as defined under the M&A Rules. However, uncertainties still exist as to how the M&A Rules will be interpreted and implemented, and the opinion of our PRC counsel is subject to any new laws, rules, and regulations or detailed implementations and interpretations in any form relating to the M&A Rules. We cannot assure you that the

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relevant PRC government agencies, including the CSRC, would reach the same conclusion as our PRC counsel. If the CSRC or other PRC regulatory body subsequently determines that we need to obtain the CSRC’s approval for this offering or if the CSRC or any other PRC government authorities promulgates any interpretation or implements rules that would require us to obtain CSRC or other governmental approvals for any such offering, we may face adverse actions or sanctions by the CSRC or other PRC regulatory agencies, which may include fines and penalties on our operations in China, limitations on our operating privileges in China, delays in or restrictions on the repatriation of the proceeds from any such offering into China, restrictions on or prohibition of the payments or remittance of dividends by our subsidiaries in China, or other actions that could have a material and adverse effect on our business, reputation, financial condition, results of operations, prospects, as well as the trading price of our ADSs. The CSRC or other PRC regulatory agencies may also take actions requiring us, or making it advisable for us, to halt any such offering before the settlement and delivery of the ADSs that we are offering. In addition, if the CSRC or other regulatory agencies later promulgate new rules or explanations requiring that we obtain their approvals for this offering, we may be unable to obtain a waiver of such approval requirements.

The General Office of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the General Office of the State Council jointly issued the Opinions on Severe and Lawful Crackdown on Illegal Securities Activities, which was available to the public on July 6, 2021. These opinions emphasized the need to strengthen the administration over illegal securities activities and the supervision on overseas listings by China-based companies. These opinions proposed to take effective measures, such as promoting the construction of relevant regulatory systems, to deal with the risks and incidents facing China-based overseas-listed companies and the demand for cybersecurity and data privacy protection. Moreover, on July 10, 2021, the CAC issued the Draft Measures, which requires that any operator applying for listing on a foreign exchange must go through cybersecurity review if it possesses personal information of more than one million users. These policies and any related implementation rules to be enacted may subject us to additional compliance requirement. As these opinions were recently issued, official guidance and interpretation of the opinions remain unclear in several respects at this time. We have not obtained the approval from either the CSRC, the CAC or any other regulators in China for this offering, and we do not believe that such approval is necessary under these circumstances. We cannot assure you, however, that the regulators will not take a contrary view or will not subsequently require us to undergo the approval procedures and subject us to penalties for non-compliance. Therefore, we cannot assure you that we will remain fully compliant with all new regulatory requirements of these opinions or any future implementation rules on a timely basis, or at all.

An active trading market for our ordinary shares or the ADSs may not develop and the trading price for the ADSs may fluctuate significantly.

We will apply to list the ADSs on [the Nasdaq Global Market]. We have no current intention to seek a listing for our ordinary shares on any stock exchange. Prior to the completion of this offering, there has been no public market for the ADSs or our ordinary shares. If an active public market for our ADSs does not develop following the completion of this offering, the market price and liquidity of the ADSs may be materially and adversely affected.

The initial public offering price for the ADSs will be determined by negotiation between us and the underwriters based upon several factors, and we can provide no assurance that the trading price of the ADSs after this offering will not fall below the initial public offering price. As a result, investors in our securities may experience a significant decrease in the value of their ADSs.

The trading price of the ADSs is likely to be volatile, which could result in substantial losses to investors.

The trading price of the ADSs is likely to be volatile and could fluctuate widely due to factors beyond our control. This may happen because of broad market and industry factors, including the performance and fluctuation of the market prices of other companies with business operations located mainly in China that have

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listed their securities in the United States. The securities of some of these companies have experienced significant volatility since their initial public offerings, including, in some cases, substantial price declines in their trading prices. The trading performances of other PRC companies’ securities after their offerings may affect the attitudes of investors toward PRC companies listed in the United States in general and consequently may impact the trading performance of our ADSs, regardless of our actual operating performance.

In addition to market and industry factors, the price and trading volume of our ADSs may be highly volatile due to factors specific to our own operations, including the following:

Any of these factors may result in large and sudden changes in the volume and price at which our ADSs will trade.

In the past, shareholders of public companies have often brought securities class action suits against those companies following periods of instability in the market price of their securities. If we were involved in a class action suit, it could divert a significant amount of our management’s attention and other resources from our business and operations and require us to incur significant expenses to defend the suit, which could harm our results of operations. Any such class action suit, whether or not successful, could harm our reputation and restrict our ability to raise capital in the future. In addition, if a claim is successfully made against us, we may be required to pay significant damages, which could have a material adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations.

If securities or industry analysts do not publish research or reports about our business, or if they adversely change their recommendations regarding the ADSs, the market price for the ADSs and trading volume could decline.

The trading market for the ADSs will be influenced by research or reports that industry or securities analysts publish about our business. If one or more analysts who cover us downgrade the ADSs, the market price for the ADSs would likely decline. If one or more of these analysts cease to cover us or fail to regularly publish reports on us, we could lose visibility in the financial markets, which could, in turn, cause the market price or trading volume for the ADSs to decline.

The sale or availability for sale of substantial amounts of the ADSs could adversely affect their market price.

Sales of substantial amounts of the ADSs in the public market after the completion of this offering, or the perception that these sales could occur, could adversely affect the market price of the ADSs and could materially impair our ability to raise capital through equity offerings in the future. The ADSs sold in this offering will be freely tradable without restriction or further registration under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, or the Securities Act, and shares held by our existing shareholders may also be sold in the public market in the future

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subject to the restrictions in Rule 144 and Rule 701 under the Securities Act and the applicable lock-up agreements. There will be ADSs (equivalent to Class A ordinary shares) outstanding immediately after this offering, or ADSs (equivalent to Class A ordinary shares) if the underwriters exercise their option to purchase additional ADSs in full. In connection with this offering, we and our officers, directors and certain option holders have agreed not to sell any ordinary shares or ADSs for 180 days after the date of this prospectus without the prior written consent of the underwriters, subject to certain exceptions. However, the underwriters may release these securities from these restrictions at any time, subject to applicable regulations of the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority, Inc. We cannot predict what effect, if any, market sales of securities held by our significant shareholders or any other shareholder or the availability of these securities for future sale will have on the market price of the ADSs. See “Underwriting” and “Shares Eligible for Future Sale” for a more detailed description of the restrictions on selling our securities after this offering.

Because we do not expect to pay dividends in the foreseeable future after this offering, you must rely on price appreciation of the ADSs for a return on your investment.

We currently intend to retain most, if not all, of our available funds and any future earnings after this offering to fund the development and growth of our business. As a result, we do not expect to pay any cash dividends in the foreseeable future. Therefore, you should not rely on an investment in our ADSs as a source for any future dividend income.

Our board of directors has discretion as to whether to distribute dividends, subject to certain requirements of Cayman Islands law. Under Cayman Islands law, a Cayman Islands company may pay a dividend out of either profit or share premium account, provided that in no circumstances may a dividend be paid if this would result in the company being unable to pay its debts as they fall due in the ordinary course of business. Even if our board of directors decides to declare and pay dividends, the timing, amount and form of future dividends, if any, will depend on our future results of operations and cash flow, our capital requirements and surplus, the amount of distributions, if any, received by us from our subsidiaries, our financial condition, contractual restrictions and other factors deemed relevant by our board of directors. Accordingly, the return on your investment in the ADSs will likely depend entirely upon any future price appreciation of the ADSs. There is no guarantee that the ADSs will appreciate in value after this offering or even maintain the price at which you purchased the ADSs. You may not realize a return on your investment in the ADSs, and you may even lose your entire investment in the ADSs.

Because the initial public offering price is substantially higher than the pro forma net tangible book value per share, you will experience immediate and substantial dilution.

If you purchase ADSs in this offering, you will pay more for each ADS than the corresponding amount paid by existing shareholders for their Class A ordinary shares. As a result, you will experience immediate and substantial dilution of approximately US$             per ADS (assuming that no outstanding options to acquire ordinary shares are exercised). This number represents the difference between (1) our pro forma net tangible book value per ADS of US$             as of June 30, 2021, after giving effect to this offering and (2) the assumed initial public offering price of US$             per ADS, the midpoint of the estimated initial public offering price range set forth on the front cover of this prospectus. See “Dilution” for a more complete description of how the value of your investment in the ADSs will be diluted upon the completion of this offering.

We have not determined a specific use for a portion of the net proceeds from this offering, and we may use these proceeds in ways with which you may not agree.

We have not determined a specific use for a portion of the net proceeds of this offering, and our management will have considerable discretion in deciding how to apply these proceeds. You will not have the opportunity to assess whether the proceeds are being used appropriately before you make your investment decision. You must rely on the judgment of our management regarding the application of the net proceeds of this offering. We cannot assure you that the net proceeds will be used in a manner that will improve our results of

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operations or increase our ADS price, or that these net proceeds will be placed only in investments that generate income or appreciate in value.

The voting rights of holders of ADSs are limited by the terms of the deposit agreement, and you may not be able to exercise your right to vote your ordinary shares.

As a holder of the ADSs, you will only be able to exercise the voting rights with respect to the underlying ordinary shares represented by your ADSs in accordance with the provisions of the deposit agreement. Under the deposit agreement, you must vote by giving voting instructions to the depositary. Upon receipt of your voting instructions, the depositary will vote the underlying ordinary shares represented by your ADSs in accordance with these instructions. You will not be able to directly exercise your right to vote with respect to the underlying ordinary shares represented by your ADSs unless you cancel and withdraw such ordinary shares. Under our amended and restated memorandum and articles of association that will become effective immediately prior to the completion of this offering, the minimum notice period required for convening a general meeting is ten days. When a general meeting is convened, you may not receive sufficient advance notice to withdraw the underlying ordinary shares represented by your ADSs to allow you to vote with respect to any specific matter. If we ask for your instructions, the depositary will notify you of the upcoming vote and will arrange to deliver our voting materials to you. We cannot assure you that you will receive the voting materials in time to ensure that you can instruct the depositary to vote the underlying ordinary shares represented by your ADSs. In addition, the depositary and its agents are not responsible for failing to carry out voting instructions or for their manner of carrying out your voting instructions. This means that you may not be able to exercise your right to vote and you may have no legal remedy if the underlying ordinary shares represented by your ADSs are not voted as you requested.

ADS holders may not be entitled to a jury trial with respect to claims arising under the deposit agreement, which could result in less favorable outcomes to the plaintiff(s) in any such action.

The deposit agreement governing the ADSs representing our Class A ordinary shares provides that, to the fullest extent permitted by law, ADS holders waive the right to a jury trial of any claim they may have against us or the depositary arising out of or relating to our shares, the ADSs or the deposit agreement, including any claim under the U.S. federal securities laws. The waiver would most likely not apply to ADS holders who subsequently withdraw the Class A ordinary shares represented by ADSs with respect to claims arising after the withdrawal.

If we or the depositary oppose a jury trial demand based on the waiver, the court would determine whether the waiver was enforceable based on the facts and circumstances of that case in accordance with the applicable state and federal law. To our knowledge, the enforceability of a contractual pre-dispute jury trial waiver in connection with claims arising under the federal securities laws has not been finally adjudicated by the United States Supreme Court. However, we believe that a contractual pre-dispute jury trial waiver provision is generally enforceable, including under the laws of the State of New York, which govern the deposit agreement, by a federal or state court in the City of New York, which has non-exclusive jurisdiction over matters arising under the deposit agreement. In determining whether to enforce a contractual pre-dispute jury trial waiver provision, courts will generally consider whether a party knowingly, intelligently and voluntarily has waived the right to a jury trial. We believe that this is the case with respect to the deposit agreement and the ADSs. It is advisable that you consult legal counsel regarding the jury waiver provision before investing in the ADSs.

If you or any other holders or beneficial owners of ADSs, including purchasers of ADSs in secondary market transactions, bring a claim against us or the depositary in connection with matters arising under the deposit agreement or the ADSs, including claims under federal securities laws, you or such other holder or beneficial owner may not be entitled to a jury trial with respect to such claims, which may have the effect of increasing the cost of bringing a claim and limiting and discouraging lawsuits against us and the depositary. If a lawsuit is brought against either or both of us and the depositary under the deposit agreement, it may be heard only by a judge or justice of the applicable trial court, which would be conducted according to different civil

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procedures and may result in different outcomes than a trial by jury would have, including results that could be less favorable to the plaintiffs in any such action.

Nevertheless, if this jury trial waiver provision is not permitted by applicable law, an action could proceed under the terms of the deposit agreement with a jury trial. No condition, stipulation or provision of the deposit agreement or ADSs serves as a waiver by any holder or beneficial owner of ADSs or by us or the depositary of compliance with any substantive provision of the U.S. federal securities laws and the rules and regulations promulgated thereunder.

The depositary for the ADSs will give us a discretionary proxy to vote our ordinary shares underlying your ADSs if you do not vote at shareholders’ meetings, except in limited circumstances, which could adversely affect your interests.

Under the deposit agreement for the ADSs, if you do not vote, the depositary may give us a discretionary proxy to vote the ordinary shares underlying the ADSs at shareholders’ meetings if we have timely provided the depositary with notice of meeting and related voting materials and (i) we have instructed the depositary that we wish a discretionary proxy to be given, (ii) we have informed the depositary that there is no substantial opposition as to a matter to be voted on at the meeting, and (iii) a matter to be voted on at the meeting would not have a material adverse impact on shareholders.

The effect of this discretionary proxy is that you cannot prevent the underlying ordinary shares represented by the ADSs from being voted, except under the circumstances described above. This may make it more difficult for holders to influence the management of the company. Holders of ordinary shares are not subject to this discretionary proxy.

Your rights to pursue claims against the depositary as a holder of ADSs are limited by the terms of the deposit agreement and the deposit agreement may be amended or terminated without your consent.

Under the deposit agreement, any action or proceeding against or involving the depositary, arising out of or based upon the deposit agreement or the transactions contemplated thereby or by virtue of owning the ADSs, which may include claims arising under the U.S. federal securities laws, may only be instituted in a state or federal court in New York, New York, and you, as a holder of our ADSs, will have irrevocably waived any objection which you may have to the laying of venue of any such proceeding, and irrevocably submitted to the exclusive jurisdiction of such courts in any such action or proceeding. However, there is uncertainty as to whether a court would enforce such forum selection provision. No condition, stipulation or provision of the deposit agreement or ADSs serves as a waiver by any holder or beneficial owner of ADSs or by us or the depositary of compliance with the U.S. federal securities laws and the rules and regulations promulgated thereunder. Also, we may amend or terminate the deposit agreement without your consent. If you continue to hold your ADSs after an amendment to the deposit agreement, you agree to be bound by the deposit agreement as amended. See “Description of American Depositary Shares” for more information.

You, as holders of ADSs, may have fewer rights than holders of our ordinary shares and must act through the depositary to exercise those rights.

Holders of ADSs do not have the same rights as our registered shareholders. As a holder of the ADSs, you will not have any direct right to attend general meetings of our shareholders or to cast any votes at such meetings. You will only be able to exercise the voting rights that are carried by the underlying ordinary shares represented by your ADSs indirectly in accordance with the provisions of the deposit agreement. Under the deposit agreement, you may vote only by giving voting instructions to the depositary. Upon receipt of your voting instructions, the depositary will try, as far as is practicable, to vote the underlying ordinary shares represented by your ADSs in accordance with your instructions. If we ask for your instructions, then upon receipt of your voting instructions, the depositary will try to vote the underlying ordinary shares represented by your ADSs in

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accordance with these instructions. If we do not instruct the depositary to ask for your instructions, the depositary may still vote in accordance with instructions you give, but it is not required to do so. You will not be able to directly exercise your right to vote with respect to the underlying ordinary shares represented by your ADSs unless you withdraw such ordinary shares and become the registered holder of such shares prior to the record date for the general meeting.

The deposit agreement provides that ADS holders and the depositary have the right to elect to have any claim they may have against us arising out of or relating to the Class A ordinary shares, the ADSs or the deposit agreement settled by arbitration in New York, New York rather than in a court of law, which may or may not be more costly, and to have any judgment rendered by the arbitrators entered in any court having jurisdiction. An arbitral tribunal in any such arbitration would not have the authority to award any consequential, special, or punitive damages and its award would have to conform to the provisions of the deposit agreement. The deposit agreement does not give us the right to require that any claim, whether brought by us or against us, be arbitrated.

You may experience dilution of your holdings due to the inability to participate in rights offerings.

We may, from time to time, distribute rights to our shareholders, including rights to acquire securities. Under the deposit agreement, the depositary will not distribute rights to holders of ADSs unless the distribution and sale of rights and the securities to which these rights relate are either exempt from registration under the Securities Act with respect to all holders of ADSs, or are registered under the provisions of the Securities Act. The depositary may, but is not required to, attempt to sell these undistributed rights to third parties, and may allow the rights to lapse. We may be unable to establish an exemption from registration under the Securities Act, and we are under no obligation to file a registration statement with respect to these rights or underlying securities or to endeavor to have a registration statement declared effective. Accordingly, holders of ADSs may be unable to participate in our rights offerings and may experience dilution of their holdings as a result.

You may be subject to limitations on the transfer of your ADSs.

Your ADSs are transferable on the books of the depositary. However, the depositary may close its books at any time or from time to time when it deems it expedient in connection with the performance of its duties. The depositary may close its books from time to time for a number of reasons, including in connection with corporate events such as a rights offering, during which time the depositary needs to maintain an exact number of ADS holders on its books for a specified period. The depositary may also close its books in emergencies, and on weekends and public holidays. The depositary may refuse to deliver, transfer or register transfers of our ADSs generally when our share register or the books of the depositary are closed, or at any time if we or the depositary thinks it is advisable to do so because of any requirement of law or of any government or governmental body, or under any provision of the deposit agreement, or for any other reason.

We will incur increased costs as a result of being a public company, particularly after we cease to qualify as an “emerging growth company.”

Upon the completion of this offering, we will become a public company and expect to incur significant legal, accounting and other expenses that we did not incur as a subsidiary of a listed company. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, as well as rules subsequently implemented by the SEC and [the Nasdaq Global Market], impose various requirements on the corporate governance practices of public companies.

We expect these rules and regulations to increase our legal and financial compliance costs and to make some corporate activities more time-consuming and costly. After we are no longer an “emerging growth company,” we expect to incur significant expenses and devote substantial management effort toward ensuring compliance with the requirements of Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 and the other rules and regulations of the SEC. For example, as a result of becoming a public company, we will need to increase the number of independent directors and adopt policies regarding internal controls and disclosure controls and procedures. We also expect that operating as a public company will make it more difficult and more expensive

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for us to obtain director and officer liability insurance, and we may be required to accept reduced policy limits and coverage or to incur substantially higher costs to obtain the same or similar coverage. In addition, we will incur additional costs associated with our public company reporting requirements. It may also be more difficult for us to find qualified persons to serve on our board of directors or as executive officers. We are currently evaluating and monitoring developments with respect to these rules and regulations, and we cannot predict or estimate with any degree of certainty the amount of additional costs we may incur or the timing of such costs.

We may become a passive foreign investment company, which could result in adverse U.S. tax consequences to U.S. investors.

Based on the past and projected composition of our income and assets, and the valuation of our assets, including goodwill (which we have determined based on the expected price of the ADSs in this offering), we do not expect to be a passive foreign investment company, or a PFIC, in the current taxable year or in the foreseeable future, although there can be no assurance in this regard.

In general, we will be a PFIC for any taxable year in which:

The determination of whether we are a PFIC is made annually. Accordingly, it is possible that we may become a PFIC in the current or any future taxable year due to changes in our asset or income composition. The composition of our assets and income may be affected by how, and how quickly, we use our liquid assets and the cash raised in this offering. Because we have valued our goodwill based on the expected market value of the ADSs, a decrease in the price of the ADSs may also result in our becoming a PFIC.

If we are a PFIC for any taxable year during which you hold the ADSs or ordinary shares, our PFIC status could result in adverse United States federal income tax consequences to you if you are a United States Holder, as defined under “Taxation—United States Federal Income Taxation.” For example, if we are or become a PFIC, you may become subject to increased tax liabilities under United States federal income tax laws and regulations, and will become subject to burdensome reporting requirements. See “Taxation—United States Federal Income Taxation—Passive foreign investment company considerations.” We cannot assure you that we will not be a PFIC for the current or any future taxable year. Our U.S. counsel expresses no opinion with respect to our PFIC status.

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SPECIAL NOTE REGARDING FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS

This prospectus contains forward-looking statements about our current expectations and views of future events, which are contained principally in the sections entitled “Prospectus Summary,” “Risk Factors,” “Use of Proceeds,” “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations,” “Industry Overview” and “Business.” These forward-looking statements relate to events that involve known and unknown risks, uncertainties and other factors which may cause our actual results, performance or achievements to be materially different from those expressed or implied by these statements.

You can identify some of these forward-looking statements by words or phrases such as “may,” “will,” “could,” “expect,” “anticipate,” “aim,” “estimate,” “intend,” “plan,” “believe,” “is/are likely to,” “propose,” “potential,” “continue” or other similar expressions. We have based these forward-looking statements largely on our current expectations and projections about future events and financial trends that we believe may affect our financial condition, results of operations, business strategy and financial needs. The forward-looking statements included in this prospectus relate to, among other things:

You should read this prospectus and the documents that we refer to in this prospectus and have filed as exhibits to the registration statement, of which this prospectus is a part, completely and with the understanding that our actual future results may be materially different from and worse than what we expect. Moreover, new risk factors and uncertainties emerge from time to time and it is not possible for our management to predict all risk factors and uncertainties, nor can we assess the impact of all factors on our business or the extent to which any factor, or combination of factors, may cause actual results to differ materially from those contained in any forward-looking statements. We qualify all of our forward-looking statements by these cautionary statements.

This prospectus also contains certain data and information that we obtained from various government and private publications. Statistical data in these publications also include projections based on a number of assumptions. Failure of the market to grow at the projected rate may have a material adverse effect on our business and the market price of the ADSs. In addition, projections or estimates about our business and financial prospects involve significant risks and uncertainties. Furthermore, if any one or more of the assumptions underlying the market data are later found to be incorrect, actual results may differ from the projections based on these assumptions. You should not place undue reliance on these forward-looking statements.

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The forward-looking statements made in this prospectus relate only to events or information as of the date on which the statements are made in this prospectus. Except as required by law, we undertake no obligation to update or revise publicly any forward-looking statements, whether as a result of new information, future events or otherwise, after the date on which the statements are made or to reflect the occurrence of unanticipated events. Comparisons of results for current and any prior periods are not intended to express any future trends or indications of future performance, unless specifically expressed as such, and should only be viewed as historical data. You should read this prospectus and the documents that we refer to in this prospectus and have filed as exhibits to the registration statement, of which this prospectus is a part, completely and with the understanding that our actual future results may be materially different from what we expect.

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USE OF PROCEEDS

We estimate that we will receive net proceeds from this offering of approximately US$         million, or approximately US$         million if the underwriters exercise in full their option to purchase additional ADSs, after deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us. These estimates are based upon an assumed initial public offering price of US$         per ADS, the mid-point of the estimated range of the initial public offering price set forth on the front cover of this prospectus.

A US$1.00 increase (decrease) in the assumed initial public offering price of US$         per ADS would increase (decrease) the net proceeds to us from this offering by US$         million, or by US$         if the underwriters exercise in full their option to purchase additional ADSs, assuming the number of ADSs offered by us, as set forth on the front cover of this prospectus, remains the same and after deducting the estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated expenses payable by us.

The primary purposes of this offering are to increase our financial flexibility, create a public market for our Class A ordinary shares represented by the ADSs for the benefit of all shareholders, retain talented employees by providing them with equity incentives and obtain additional capital. We plan to use the net proceeds of this offering as follows:

The amounts and timing of any expenditures will vary depending on the amount of cash generated by our operations, and the rate of growth, if any, of our business, and our plans and business conditions. The foregoing represents our intentions as of the date of this prospectus based upon our current plans and business conditions to use and allocate the net proceeds of this offering. However, our management will have significant flexibility and discretion in applying the net proceeds of this offering. Unforeseen events or changed business conditions may result in application of the proceeds of this offering in a manner other than as described in this prospectus.

To the extent that the net proceeds we receive from this offering are not immediately applied for the above purposes, we plan to invest the net proceeds in short-term, interest-bearing debt instruments or bank deposits.

In utilizing the proceeds from this offering, as an offshore holding company, we are permitted under PRC laws and regulations to provide funding to our PRC subsidiaries only through loans or capital contributions and to our affiliated entities only through loans, subject to applicable government reporting, registration and approvals. Subject to satisfaction of applicable government reporting, registration and approval requirements, we may extend inter-company loans to our wholly foreign-owned subsidiary in China or make additional capital contributions to our wholly-foreign-owned subsidiary to fund its capital expenditures or working capital. For an increase of registered capital of our wholly foreign-owned subsidiary, we need to submit a report of such modification information to the Ministry of Commerce or its local counterparts through the Enterprise Registration System as well as complete applicable regulatory registrations. If we provide funding to our wholly foreign-owned subsidiary through loans, the total amount of such loans may not exceed either (1) the difference between the entity’s total investment as approved by the foreign investment authorities and its registered capital, or (2) two and a half times, or the then applicable statutory multiple, the amount of the entity’s net assets, calculated in accordance with PRC GAAP, at our election. Such loans must be registered with local counterpart of SAFE within 15 days immediately following the execution of the loan agreement as required by the SAFE

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regulations. We cannot assure you that we will be able to obtain these government registrations or approvals on a timely basis, if at all. Any failure will delay or prevent us from applying the net proceeds from this offering to our PRC subsidiaries. See “Risk Factors—Risks Relating to Conducting Business in China—PRC regulation of loans to and direct investment in PRC entities by offshore holding companies and governmental control of currency conversion may delay or prevent us from using the proceeds of this offering to make loans or additional capital contributions to our PRC subsidiaries and affiliated entities.”

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DIVIDEND POLICY

We have not declared or paid any dividends. We do not have any present plan to pay any cash dividends on our ordinary shares in the foreseeable future after this offering. We currently intend to retain most, if not all, of our available funds and any future earnings to operate and expand our business.

Our board of directors has complete discretion in deciding the payment of any future dividends, subject to certain requirements of Cayman Islands law. In addition, our shareholders may by ordinary resolution declare a dividend, but no dividend may exceed the amount recommended by our board of directors. Under Cayman Islands law, a Cayman Islands company may pay a dividend out of either profit or share premium account, provided that in no circumstances may a dividend be paid if this would result in the company being unable to pay its debts as they fall due in the ordinary course of business. The declaration and payment of dividends will depend upon, among other things, our future operations and earnings, capital requirements and surplus, our financial condition, contractual restrictions, general business conditions and other factors as our board of directors may deem relevant. See “Description of Share Capital—Our Post-offering Memorandum and Articles of Association—Dividends.”

We are a holding company incorporated in the Cayman Islands. We may rely on dividends from our subsidiaries in China for our cash requirements, including any payment of dividends to our shareholders. PRC regulations may restrict the ability of our PRC subsidiaries to pay dividends to us.

If we pay any dividends, we will pay our ADS holders to the same extent as holders of our Class A ordinary shares, subject to the terms of the deposit agreement, including the fees and expenses payable thereunder. See “Description of American Depositary Shares.” Cash dividends on our Class A ordinary shares, if any, will be paid in U.S. dollars.

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CAPITALIZATION

The following table sets forth our capitalization as of December 31, 2020 presented on:

You should read this table in conjunction with the information under “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” and our consolidated financial statements and the related notes included elsewhere in this prospectus:

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DILUTION

If you invest in the ADSs, your interest will be diluted to the extent of the difference between the initial public offering price per ADS and our net tangible book value per ADS after this offering. Dilution results from the fact that the initial public offering price per ordinary share is substantially in excess of the book value per ordinary share attributable to the existing shareholders for our presently outstanding ordinary shares on an as-converted basis.

Our net tangible book value as of December 31, 2020 was approximately negative RMB48.6 million (negative US$7.5 million), or negative RMB0.61 (negative US$0.09) per ordinary share on an as-converted basis as of that date and US$         per ADS. Net tangible book value represents the amount of our total consolidated tangible assets, which represent the amount of our total consolidated assets, excluding intangible assets and deferred initial public offering expenses, less total consolidated liabilities.

Dilution is determined by subtracting net tangible book value per ordinary share on an as-converted basis, after giving effect to the additional proceeds we will receive from this offering, from the assumed initial public offering price of US$         per Class A ordinary share, which is the mid-point of the estimated range of the initial public offering price set forth on the front cover of this prospectus adjusted to reflect the ADS-to-ordinary share ratio, and after deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us. Because the Class A ordinary shares and Class B ordinary shares have the same dividend and other rights, except for voting and conversion rights, the dilution is presented based on all issued and outstanding ordinary shares, including Class A ordinary shares and Class B ordinary shares.

Without taking into account any other changes in net tangible book value after December 31, 2020, other than to give effect to (1) the automatic conversion or re-designation of all of our ordinary shares into Class A ordinary shares or Class B ordinary shares, as the case may be, on a one-to-one basis immediately prior to the completion of this offering, and (2) our sale of the ADSs offered in this offering at the assumed initial public offering price of US$         per ADS, the mid-point of the estimated range of the initial public offering price set forth on the front cover of this prospectus, after deducting the underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us and assuming no exercise by the underwriters of their option to purchase additional ADSs, our pro forma net tangible book value as of December 31, 2020 would have been US$         million, or US$         per ordinary share, including the underlying ordinary shares represented by the outstanding ADSs, and US$         per ADS. This represents an immediate increase in net tangible book value of US$         per ordinary share and US$         per ADS to the existing shareholders and an immediate dilution in net tangible book value of US$         per ordinary share and US$         per ADS to investors purchasing ADSs in this offering. The following table illustrates such dilution:

A US$1.00 increase (decrease) in the assumed public offering price of US$         per ADS would increase (decrease) our pro forma net tangible book value after giving effect to this offering by US$        , the pro forma net tangible book value per ordinary share and per ADS after giving effect to this offering by US$         per ordinary share and US$         per ADS and the dilution in pro forma net tangible book value per ordinary share and per ADS to new investors in this offering by US$         per ordinary share and US$         per ADS, assuming no change to the number of ADSs offered by us as set forth on the front cover of this prospectus and assuming no

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exercise by the underwriters of their option to purchase additional ADSs, and after deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us.

The following table summarizes, on a pro forma basis as of December 31, 2020, the differences between existing shareholders and the new investors with respect to the number of ordinary shares (in the form of ADSs or shares) purchased from us, the total consideration paid and the average price per ordinary share and per ADS paid before deducting underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us. The total number of ordinary shares does not include the underlying ordinary shares represented by the ADSs issuable upon the exercise by the underwriters of their option to purchase additional ADSs.

The pro forma information discussed above is illustrative only. Our net tangible book value following the completion of this offering is subject to adjustment based on the actual initial public offering price of the ADSs and other terms of this offering determined at pricing.

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ENFORCEABILITY OF CIVIL LIABILITIES

We are incorporated under the laws of the Cayman Islands as an exempted company with limited liability to take advantage of certain benefits associated with being a Cayman Islands exempted company:

However, certain disadvantages accompany incorporation in the Cayman Islands. These disadvantages include, but are not limited to, the following:

Our memorandum and articles of association do not contain provisions requiring that disputes, including those arising under the securities laws of the United States, between us, our officers, directors and shareholders, be arbitrated.

We conduct all of our operations outside the United States, and substantially all of our assets are located outside the United States. Substantially all of our officers are nationals or residents of jurisdictions other than the United States and a substantial portion of their assets are located outside the United States. As a result, it may be difficult or impossible for a shareholder to effect service of process within the United States upon us or these persons, or to enforce against us or them judgments obtained in United States courts, including judgments predicated upon the civil liability provisions of the securities laws of the United States or any state in the United States.

We have appointed             , located at             , as our agent upon whom process may be served in any action brought against us under the securities laws of the United States.

Cayman Islands

We have been advised by Maples and Calder (Hong Kong) LLP, our counsel as to Cayman Islands law, that there is uncertainty as to whether the courts of the Cayman Islands would (1) recognize and enforce judgments of U.S. courts obtained against us or our directors or officers that are predicated upon the civil liability provision of the federal securities laws of the United States or the securities laws of any state in the United States, or (2) entertain original actions brought in the Cayman Islands against us or our directors or officers that are predicated upon the federal securities laws of the United States or the securities laws of any state in the United States.

We have also been advised by Maples and Calder (Hong Kong) LLP that, although there is no statutory recognition in the Cayman Islands of judgments obtained in the federal or state courts of the U.S. (and the Cayman Islands are not a party to any treaties for the reciprocal enforcement or recognition of such judgments), the courts of the Cayman Islands at common law, recognize and enforce a foreign money judgment of a foreign court of competent jurisdiction without any re-examination of the merits of the underlying dispute based on the principle that a judgment of a competent foreign court imposes upon the judgment debtor an obligation to pay the liquidated sum for which such judgment has been given, provided such judgment (1) is given by a foreign court of competent jurisdiction, (2) imposes on the judgment debtor a liability to pay a liquidated sum for which the

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judgment has been given, (3) is final and conclusive, (4) is not in respect of taxes, a fine or a penalty, and (5) was not obtained in a manner and is not of a kind the enforcement of which is contrary to natural justice or the public policy of the Cayman Islands.

However, the Cayman Islands courts are unlikely to enforce a judgment obtained from the United States courts under the civil liability provisions of the securities laws if such judgment is determined by the courts of the Cayman Islands to give rise to obligations to make payments that are penal or punitive in nature. A Cayman Islands court may stay enforcement proceedings if concurrent proceedings are being brought elsewhere.

PRC

Zhong Lun Law Firm, our counsel as to PRC law, has advised us that there is uncertainty as to whether the PRC courts would:

Zhong Lun Law Firm has further advised us that the recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments are provided for under the PRC Civil Procedures Law. PRC courts may recognize and enforce foreign judgments in accordance with the requirements of the PRC Civil Procedures Law. Zhong Lun Law Firm has advised us further that under PRC law, a foreign judgment that does not otherwise violate the basic legal principles, national sovereignty, security or public interest may be recognized and enforced by a PRC court, based either on bilateral treaties or international conventions contracted by China and the jurisdiction where the judgment is made or on principles of reciprocity between jurisdictions. China does not have any treaties or other form of reciprocity with the United States or the Cayman Islands that provide for the reciprocal recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments. In addition, according to the PRC Civil Procedures Law, courts in China will not enforce a foreign judgment against us or our directors and officers if they decide that the judgment violates the basic principles of PRC law or national sovereignty, security or public interest. As a result, it is uncertain whether and on what basis a PRC court would enforce a judgment rendered by a court in the United States or in the Cayman Islands. Under the PRC Civil Procedures Law, foreign shareholders may originate actions based on PRC law against us in China if they can establish sufficient connection to China for a PRC court to have jurisdiction, and meet other procedural requirements, including, among others, the plaintiff must have a direct interest in the case, and there must be a concrete claim, a factual basis and a cause for the suit. However, it will be difficult for foreign shareholders, by virtue only of holding the ADSs or ordinary shares, to establish a sufficient connection to China for a PRC court to have jurisdiction as required under the PRC Civil Procedures Law.

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CORPORATE HISTORY AND STRUCTURE

Corporate History

We are a Cayman Islands holding company and primarily conduct our operations in China through our PRC subsidiaries. We first started our business designing and developing high throughput computing solutions through Zhejiang Haowei Technology Co., Ltd., or Zhejiang Haowei, incorporated in July 2019. Since our inception, we have been devoted to the design and development of computing power solutions.

On January 8, 2021, we incorporated Nano Labs Ltd, our holding company, as an exempted company with limited liability under the laws of the Cayman Islands. In 2021, we underwent a series of corporate reorganization in anticipation of our initial public offering, including incorporation of our company as the listing vehicle, incorporation of our oversea holding companies and issuance of shares to shareholders of Zhejiang Haowei. In April 2021, we completed a one-for-10,000 shares subdivision, following which our authorized share capital of US$50,000 is divided into 500,000,000 ordinary shares of US$0.0001 each.

Our principal executive office is located at 30th Floor, Dikaiyinzuo, No. 29, East Jiefang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China. Our telephone number at this address is (86) 0571-8665 6957. Our registered office in the Cayman Islands is located at Genesis Building, 5th Floor, Genesis Close, PO Box 446, Cayman Islands, KY 1-1106.

Corporate Structure

The following diagram illustrates our corporate structure as of the date of this prospectus.

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SELECTED CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL DATA

The following selected consolidated statements of operations data for the years ended December 31, 2019 and 2020, the summary consolidated balance sheets data as of December 31, 2019 and 2020 and the selected consolidated statements of cash flows data for the years ended December 31, 2019 and 2020 have been derived from the audited consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this prospectus.

Our audited consolidated financial statements have been prepared in accordance with U.S. GAAP. Historical results for any prior period are not necessarily indicative of results to be expected for any future period.

You should read the following information in conjunction with those financial statements and accompanying notes included elsewhere in this prospectus and “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.”

Selected Consolidated Statements of Operations Data

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Selected Consolidated Balance Sheets Data

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Selected Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows Data

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MANAGEMENT’S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CONDITION AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

You should read the following discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations in conjunction with the section entitled “Selected Consolidated Financial and Operating Data” and our consolidated financial statements and the related notes included elsewhere in this prospectus. This discussion contains forward-looking statements that involve risks and uncertainties. Our actual results and the timing of selected events could differ materially from those anticipated in these forward-looking statements as a result of various factors, including those set forth under “Risk Factors” and elsewhere in this prospectus.

Overview

We are a leading fabless IC design company and product solution provider in China. We are committed to the development of HTC chips, HPC chips, distributed computing and storage solutions, smart-NICs, and vision computing chips. We have built a comprehensive FPU architecture which offers solution that integrates the features of both HTC and HPC. Moreover, our Cuckoo series are one of the first near-memory HTC chips available in the market with a maximum bandwidth of approximately 2.27 Tbps, as well as one of the first movers of ASIC-based Grin mining market, according to the F&S report.

In June 2021, we established iPollo Miner Pte. Ltd., our indirect wholly-owned subsidiary in Singapore, to facilitate our business expansion in the overseas IC markets.

In 2020, we began to generate revenues, which were primarily from the sales of our HTC solutions in relation to Grin mining.

Key Factors Affecting Our Results of Operations

Our results of operations have been, and are expected to continue to be, affected by various factors, which primarily include the following:

Pricing of our products and changes in our sales mix

Our product pricing strategy and sales mix directly impacted our financial results and financial condition historically and are expected to continue affecting our revenue and financial performance in the future. We normally set the price of our products on a cost-plus basis after taking into account a variety of factors, including the costs of the products, market conditions, the purchase volume of our customers, technical requirements of the application solutions and resources involved. We may not be able to set the prices at desired level for some of our products and our sales mix may fluctuate significantly in response to the technological advancement, and the changes in market demand and market competition. If there are any significant changes in our sales mix and product prices, our overall gross profit margin and profit margin will be both affected by the changes in revenue and gross profit margin attributable to each of our products.

Performance and cost of our products

The pricing of and demand for our products and solutions are closely related to their performance. In general, more advanced process technologies can accommodate designs that produce ASIC chips with higher power efficiency. The introduction of new process and design technologies also enables us to gradually lower the production costs of chips with comparable computing power. However, the application of such process technologies, as well as other cutting-edge technologies in the design and production of ASIC chips, also commands high initial setup costs, particularly when the new production techniques first become available, which translates to higher per unit costs. As a result, our new generation ASICs using the most advanced technologies will need to achieve strong sales in order to justify the initial setup costs of the new production

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techniques and maintain our profitability. At the same time, as the most advanced production capabilities of IC foundries ramp up, the initial high unit cost for IC fabrication may also decrease, which will likely translate to lower fabrication costs and a positive effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Competitiveness in research and development

Research and development is key to the success of our products and solutions. Our research and development expenses were RMB10.1 million and RMB34.5 million (US$5.3 million) in 2019 and 2020. We continue to focus on enhancing our product planning and research and development capabilities to introduce or improve products that can address the evolving customer needs in a timely manner. As existing competitors may introduce new technologies or provide more competitive offerings and more companies may enter the market to compete with us, competition may intensify in the future, and consequently, our competitiveness and market share may be affected. As a result, our ability to continue offering new and enhanced ICs as well as competitive products and technologies will have a significant impact on our results of operations.

Expected economic returns on blockchain mining activities and fluctuation of cryptocurrency price especially

In 2020, we began to generate revenues, which were primarily from the sales of our HTC solutions as applied to blockchain mining. We expect that a significant part of our revenue will remain dependent on the sales of our HTC solutions in the near future. An increase in the economic return of blockchain mining activities would generally stimulate the demand and average selling price for our HTC and HPC solutions, and vice versa. Increases in cryptocurrency prices, especially the prices of Bitcoin and Ethereum, are the most significant factor that could increase the expected economic returns generated by blockchain mining activities. Other factors that may increase the economic return of blockchain mining activities include, among others, increase in transaction fees, decrease in electricity costs or other operating costs, increase in computing power and efficiency of our HTC and HPC solutions, reduction of difficulties of mining activities and increase in the number of cryptocurrencies awarded for mining activities. Fluctuation of cryptocurrency prices, such as a significant drop, may significantly affect our results of operations and financial condition.

Production capacity

As a fabless IC design company, we outsource the fabrication process of our chips to third-party foundry partners, the testing and packaging process to third-party testing and packaging partners, and assembling of final products to third-party assembling partners. We work closely with a limited number of such partners. For example, we currently mainly rely on third-party leading foundries in the globe for the manufacturing process of our IC products, and we cannot guarantee that they will be able to meet our manufacturing requirements or capacity or that they will not raise their prices. See “Risk Factors—Risks Relating to Our Business—Our IC products mainly depend on supplies from third-party foundries, and any failure to obtain sufficient foundry capacity from such foundries would significantly delay the shipment of our products.” It will also be difficult for us to establish new or alternative supplier relationship to ensure a steady supply in a timely and cost-effective manner. As a result, our ability to quickly respond to market demand and meet production timelines, as well as to price our products competitively, is highly dependent on our third-party production partners. If our production partners are unable to meet our production capacity requirements or deliver products that meet our quality standards on a timely basis, our results of operations will be adversely affected.

We may also incur significant cash outflow at the early stages of our production process because we are required to make prepayments to some of our third-party production partners to secure their production capacity beforehand, which may affect our liquidity position. In addition, any failure by our third-party production partners to perform their obligations in a timely manner may subject us to counterparty risk and make it difficult or impossible for us to fulfill our customers’ orders, which would harm our reputation and negatively affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

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Regulatory environment

Historically, our customers were primarily based in China, and we expect a growing portion of our revenues to be derived from sales outside China. As such, we need to make efforts and incur costs to ensure that we are compliant with the evolving laws and regulations in the various jurisdictions that are material to our business and operations. Our ability to anticipate and respond to potential changes in government policies and regulations will have a significant impact on our business operations in such countries and our overall results of operations.

Key Components of Results of Operations

Net Revenues

In 2020, we began to generate revenues. Our net revenues are primarily derived from sales of our HTC solutions and provision of IC design services to our customers.

The following table sets forth the breakdown of our net revenues by category, both in absolute amount and as a percentage of total net revenues for each category for the years indicated:

Product sales revenue

Our product sales revenue primarily comprises sales of our HTC solutions in relation to Grin mining. The following table sets forth the breakdown of sales volume and average selling price (per unit) of our HTC solutions by product for the years indicated: